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Maoism

2024-10-04T19:42:12Z

103.125.235.23: missing word added

{{Distinguish|[[Mao Zedong Thought]]}}
[[File:Maoist demonstration in the United States.jpg|thumb|Maoist [[Red Guards (United States)|Red Guards]] propagating the "[[Five Heads of Communism|Six Heads of Communism]]" in the United States.]]
'''Maoism''', also known as '''Marxism–Leninism–Maoism''' ('''MLM'''), is a [[Dogmatism|dogmatic]] current of communist thought. Being first synthesized as separate from [[Mao Zedong Thought]] (MZT) by [[Abimael Guzmán]] of the [[Shining Path]] party, the ideology has also been adopted by other groups such as the [[New People's Army]] (NPA) of the [[Philippines]] and the [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)]]. Maoism considers itself to be a step forward from Marxism–Leninism, differing from MZT.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9Q5_m07JUI Marxism-Leninism-Maoism Basic Course by Foreign Languages Press Chapters 1-8 (Audiobook)]</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYg9tA22O_Y&t Marxism-Leninism-Maoism Basic Course by Foreign Languages Press Chapters 9-16 (Audiobook)]</ref><ref>{{Citation | title-url=https://foreignlanguages.press/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/S01-MLM-Basic-Course-Revised-Edition-10th-Printing.pdf | title=Marxism–Leninism–Maoism basic course (PDF) (5th ed.)}}</ref> Maoism believes in the ideas of the [[Cultural Revolution]], [[Protracted People's War]] (PPW), [[New Democracy]], and [[Mass Line]], all of which take inspiration from MZT. People's War is a the form of guerrilla warfare which was developed specifically for the material conditions of [[People's Republic of China|China]] in the previous century, although it is usually adopted as a universal dogma by Maoists, even in [[Imperial core|developed countries]].

{{Maoism sidebar}}

==Development==

===Origin of the term===

Maoism was first coined by bourgeois historians and politicians to describe the conditions of [[People's Republic of China|China]] under [[Mao Zedong]].

Mao never preferred the term, not allowing his name along with Marx, Lenin or Stalin and even stated that "there is no Maoism",<ref>[https://armedwithapen.com/mao-on-maoism/ Mao on Maoism: The Dialectical Case for Mao Zedong Thought]</ref> which is true, as the specific set of policies taken by Mao were merely Sinicized Marxism–Leninism.

The term Marxism–Leninism–Maoism represents the Maoist view of their ideology being a development and "higher stage" of Marxism–Leninism.

===Synthesis of Maoism===
Chairman Gonzalo is the first person to synthesise the term "Maoism" although the application of Maoism appears significantly earlier starting with the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] in 1968.<ref>[https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/communist-party-philippines-new-peoples-army Stanford CISAC - Communist Party of the Philippines]</ref>

Gonzalo states that Maoism is the third stage of Marxism, and that it had to be synthesised due to the following three reasons: Mao's contribution to the idea of "Bureaucrat Capitalism", Mao's establishment of the "Socialist Political Economy", and Mao's military theory.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20071108165711/http://www.blythe.org/peru-pcp/docs_en/interv.htm Interview with Chairman Gonzalo]</ref>

===Using the ideology "Maoism"===
The [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] has adopted the term after the foundation of Gonzalo Thought, along with the Communist Party of India (Maoist) once it was formed. Other notable Marxist–Leninist–Maoist movements can be seen in [[Russian Maoist Party|Russia]] and [[Maoist Communist Party of China|China]].

==Characteristics ==

===Mao Zedong Thought===
{{Main article|Mao Zedong Thought}}
Maoism follows the aspects of Mao Zedong Thought, which include the few new developments made by Mao such as New Democracy, the Mass Line, and Mao's [[Three Worlds Theory]].

===Anti-revisionism===
{{Main article|Anti-revisionism}}

Gonzalo emphasises the strength to be against revisionism, stating that<blockquote>"Revisionism obviously is a cancer, a cancer that has to be ruthlessly eliminated."<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Thus Maoism, like [[Hoxhaism]], puts a further emphasis on anti-revisionism, stating it to be "substituting [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] philosophy into Marxism,"<ref name=":0" /> but in practice, as with Hoxhaism, it only ends being a dogmatic and revisionist position which doesn't let one surpass the infantilism that this generates and provokes division in the communist movement.

===Universality of Protracted People's War===
{{Main article|Protracted people's war}}

Gonzalo puts an emphasis that a Protracted People's War is universal, stating that it is adaptable to the countryside and the city,<blockquote>People's war is universally applicable, in accordance with the character of the revolution and adapted to the specific conditions of each country.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

===Emphasis of a joint dictatorship===
Gonzalo stated, due to the material conditions of Peru, that a joint dictatorship had to form between the [[proletariat]], [[peasantry]] and the progressives ([[Petty bourgeoisie|petit bourgeoisie]])<ref name=":0" />.

===Emphasis on revolutionary violence===
Gonzalo also stated that violence must be done, that reform is impossible to achieve.<blockquote>With regard to violence we start from the principle established by Chairman Mao Tsetung: violence, '''that is the need for revolutionary violence, is a universal law with no exception.''' Revolutionary violence is what allows us to resolve fundamental contradictions by means of an army, through people's war.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

==Criticism==

===Universality of PPW===
A lot of Marxist–Leninists do not think that a protracted people's war is universal, that it is only adaptable to the material conditions presented in particular [[Third World|Third World Nations]], and it couldn't be accomplished in the [[First World]] particularly due to a lack of peasantry and the logistics that the bourgeois state holds that are able to destroy the PPW in developed countries.

===Anti-AES===
Maoists often view present or past [[Socialist state|socialist states]] especially the post-[[Stalin]] [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] as losing their [[socialist]] aspects and instead, according to Maoists, becoming [[Revisionism|revisionist]] or [[Social-imperialism|social-imperialist]].

====Soviet Union====
Gonzalo views [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] as a great person, and not revisionist.{{Citation needed}} When [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] and [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] were the leaders of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]], Gonzalo denounces them as "revisionist", as Gonzalo stated Khrushchev's utopian ideas such as "Communism could be reached by 1980."<ref name=":0" />

====China====
[[File:Chairman Gonzalo Poster.jpg|thumb|Poster of Chairman Gonzalo]]Gonzalo views [[Mao Zedong|Mao]] as a great person, and the person that he believes to have created a new stage for Marxism. During the [[Deng Xiaoping]] era of reforms, Gonzalo called him a revisionist and stated that he "restored capitalism".<ref name=":0" /> Most Maoists think that the modern [[People's Republic of China]] is social imperialist, and a [[dictatorship of the bourgeoisie]].

====Vietnam====
Gonzalo views [[Ho Chi Minh]] as a "centrist", that aligns with the Marxists and Revisionists.<ref name=":0" /> He claims that he was a revisionist, because he didn't tackle revisionism, and after his death, the [[Doi Moi reforms]] occurred.

====DPRK====
Gonzalo never specifically states that the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|DPRK]] is a revisionist nation,<ref name=":0" /> however, most Maoists despise the DPRK and its Eternal Leader [[Kim Il-sung|Kim Il-Sung]]. They regard ''[[Juche]]'' as an ultranationalist deviation from Marxism and argue that the [[planned economy]] of the DPRK is operated by a hidden class of bourgeoisie.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=massline.org|title=Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)|url=https://massline.org/Dictionary/DE.htm#DPRK|retrieved=2023-12-4|quote=The country which in the West is usually called “North Korea”. The DPRK was established in the northern part of Korea by Communist anti-Japanese guerrilla forces at the end of World War II, and with the substantial support of the Soviet Union. At the same time U.S. imperialism—with the help of the defeated Japanese military forces—quickly established its control over the southern part of Korea, which set the stage for its horrendous imperialist Korean War (1950-1953) and the continued division of the Korean nation since that time.
The highly deficient sort of top-down socialism which was originally established in the DPRK was—if anything—a more extreme form of the bureaucratic type of socialism which existed in the Soviet Union in the Stalin era. Since—as in the USSR—the DPRK regime did not know or use the mass line in politics, industry or agriculture, this type of society tended to soon become more and more undemocratic and authoritarian. Over the years it has degenerated totally away from anything which can be remotely considered as genuine “socialism” (which, after all, must most essentially be based on the rule of the people themselves). The DPRK is now best characterized as an ultra-nationalistic form of state capitalism, directed by a tiny militarily-obsessed elite social class, and for the primary benefit of that very privileged governing class. Even more absurdly, this DPRK ruling class has turned its regime into one which is very close to a hereditary absolute monarchy, which was ruled first by Kim Il Sung, then by his son Kim Jong Il, and now by his son, Kim Jong Un.}}</ref>

====Cuba====
Gonzalo never specifically states that [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]] is a revisionist nation, however, he claims that [[Fidel Castro|Castro]] let the Soviet Union commit "social-imperialism" onto the nation.<ref name=":0" /> Most Maoists also despise Cuba, especially during the private reforms that have taken place.

===Fetishisation of revolutionary violence===
Marxist-Leninists typically use revolutionary violence as an alternate means of establishing socialism in contrast to [[Reformism|reformism]], as evidence exists that reformism typically cannot work. However most Marxist–Leninists despise the revolutionary aims that Maoism attempts to achieve, particularly because it is acting in a similar way that [[Vladimir Lenin]] described as "[[Adventurism|Revolutionary Adventurism]]".<ref>{{Citation
| author = V.I. Lenin
| year = 1902
| title = Revolutionary Adventurism
| title-url = https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Revolutionary_Adventurism
| quote = In their defence of terrorism, which the experience of the Russian revolutionary movement has so clearly proved to be ineffective, the Socialist-Revolutionaries are talking themselves blue in the face in asseverating that they recognise terrorism only in conjunction with work among the masses, and that therefore the arguments used by the Russian Social-Democrats to refute the efficacy of this method of struggle (and which have indeed been refuted for a long time to come) do not apply to them. Here something very similar to their attitude towards “criticism” is repeating itself. We are not opportunists, cry the Socialist-Revolutionaries, and at the same time they are shelving the dogma of proletarian socialism, for reason of sheer opportunist criticism and no other. We are not repeating the terrorists’ mistakes and are not diverting attention from work among the masses, the Socialist-Revolutionaries assure us, and at the same time enthusiastically recommend to the Party acts such as Balmashov’s assassination of Sipyagin, although everyone knows and sees perfectly well that this act was in no way connected with the masses and, moreover, could not have been by reason of the very way in which it was carried out—that the persons who committed this terrorist act neither counted on nor hoped for any definite action or support on the part of the masses.
}}</ref> A specific case of Maoist revolutionary violence would be the [[Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path]], which the party itself uses methods such as assassinations, bombings, and cult-like behaviour.<ref>{{Citation
| author = Andreo Matías
| year = 1988
| title = The CIA's Shining Path: Political Warfare
| title-url = https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:The_CIA%27s_Shining_Path:_Political_Warfare
| chapter = The inconsistency of Shining Path Thought
| chapter-url = https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:The_CIA%27s_Shining_Path:_Political_Warfare#The_inconsistency_of_Shining_Path_Thought
| quote = [T]errorism and sabotage are not part of this class violence in Marxism-Leninism. If they have occurred in the history of revolutionary movements, they have been secondary and usually aimed against foreign invaders. Systematic destruction of means of production is also not conceivable within Marxist thought.

The violence that the Shining Path claims to derive from Marxism-Leninism is primarily directed towards the Peruvian peasantry, a historically subjugated class. This class is experiencing rapid changes and is rich in new social contradictions. According to classifications by sociologists and anthropologists from the CIA and other foreign intelligence services, the peasantry is a social base that the Shining Path considers useful for their so-called revolutionary violence. They aim to destroy the social and economic relations of the peasant class, applying selective terrorism and assassinating local leaders and authorities.
}}</ref>

=== Use of the peasantry===
Gonzalo stated that the number of the proletariat is insufficient,<blockquote>The peasantry, especially the poor peasants, are the main participants, as fighters and commanders at different levels in the People's Guerrilla Army. The workers participate in the same ways, although the percentage of workers at this time is insufficient.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>This could mean that this is a peasant-led revolution and not a proletarian-led one.

==See also==

*[[Gonzalo Thought]]
*[[New Synthesis]]
*[[Hoxhaism]]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Maoism]]
[[Category:Communist ideologies]]
[[Category:Revisionism]]

Swiss Confederation

2024-10-04T14:40:42Z

103.125.235.23: Grammar / spelling fixes

{{Infobox country
| name = Swiss Confederation
| native_name = Confédération suisse (French) Confederazione Svizzera (Italian) Confederaziun svizra (Romansh) Confoederatio helvetica (Latin)
| image_flag = Flag_of_Switzerland_(Pantone).png
| image_coat = 541px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Switzerland_(Pantone).png
| capital = None (de jure) Bern (de facto)
| largest_city = Zürich
| mode_of_production = [[Capitalism]]
|government_type=Federal assembly-independent directorial republic|leader_title1=Federal Council|leader_name1=[[Viola Amherd]] (President) [[Karin Keller-Sutter]] (Vice President) [[Guy Parmelin]] [[Ignazio Cassis]] [[Albert Rösti]] [[Élisabeth Baume-Schneider]] [[Beat Jans]]|leader_title2=Federal Chancellor|leader_name2=[[Viktor Rossi]]|image_map=Switzerland map.svg|map_width=260| official_languages = [[German]], [[French]], [[Italian]], and [[Romansh]].
| area_km2 = 41,285
| population_estimate = 8,703,405
| population_estimate_year = 2021
}}

The '''Swiss Confederation''', also known as '''Switzerland''', is a landlocked mountainous country located in the heart of [[Europe]] bordered by [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]], [[French Republic|France]], [[Italian Republic|Italy]], [[Republic of Austria|Austria]] and [[Principality of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]]. It is known for its banking system as well as being supposedly neutral; not involving itself in any foreign war since 1815. However, this neutrality has not prevented it from engaging in [[imperialism]].

== History ==

=== Napoleonic era ===
The [[French Revolution]], that erupted towards the end of the 18th century, inspired the Swiss [[bourgeoisie]] to begin revolutionary action to put an end to [[feudalism]] in Switzerland. Disturbances took place in [[Geneva]], [[Valais]], and [[Vaud]] in 1792, whilst in Basel the [[Rauracian Republic]] was formed, but was swiftly annexed by [[French First Republic (1792–1804)|France]] in May 1793.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|author=A. N. Chistozvonov, G. P. Dragunov|year=1979|title=The Great Soviet Encyclopedia|title-url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Switzerland|chapter=Switzerland|section=Late 18th century and early 19th century}}</ref>

The French Army entered Switzerland in spring 1798 and captured [[Bern]] on March 5; leading to the proclamation of the Helvetic Republic on April 12 in [[Aargau]]. The new Swiss state had a constitution modeled after the French constitution of 1795, making Switzerland a centralized, unitary state. The defensive agreements concluded with France involved Switzerland in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], causing Switzerland to become a battleground during the [[War of the Second Coalition]].<ref name=":0" />

A struggle developed in 1802 between the unionists and the federalists and on February 19, 1803, [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] issued the Act of Mediation which restored the old pre-1798 system of Switzerland with some changes. Following the defeat of [[First French Empire (1804 – 1815)|Napoleonic France]], the Act of Mediation was repealed and Switzerland declared on December 29,1813 its intent to observe strict neutrality. This decision was included in the new constitution drafted in September 1814 and ratified by the diet in August 1815. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 also recognised Swiss neutrality as well as granting Switzerland the lands of [[Valais]], Geneva and [[Neuchâtel]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Industrialisation ===
In the 1830s the liberal bourgeoisie began agitating to eliminate feudal relations and centralize the state which put them at odds with the clerical faction. Between 1843 and 1845 seven [[Catholicism|Catholic]] cantons established a [[reactionary]] bloc, the [[Sonderbund]], which in 1847 provoked a short civil war in which the federal government was victorious. The victory of the bourgeoisie was affirmed in the 1848 constitution which established a centralized federal state and its power was extended by the 1874 constitution; this centralization allowed for the swift establishment of capitalism.<ref name=":0" />

Switzerland's role as a middle man in international trade allowed for the swift accumulation of [[capital]] which helped it usher in the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]]. Light industry expanded substantially in the 40s and 50s, and [[Agriculture|agricultural]] production became more specialized allowing for butter and cheese to become important exports. Between 1825 and 1874 the length of the railroad system increased from 25 km to 1,500 km and continued to expand, increasing freight and passenger travel in Switzerland rapidly, and in 1898 the railroads were bought by the state from the private sector. During this time Switzerland also became a hub for political refugees and several sections of the [[International Workingmen's Association|First International]] were created in the country.<ref name=":0" />

At the end of the 19th century several new industries established themselves in Switzerland such as machine building and between 1888 and 1910 the number of persons employed in industry rose from 543,000 to 811,000, helped by an influx of foreign workers. By the beginning of the 20th century [[monopoly capitalism]] had become firmly entrenched with Swiss Assets abroad in 1914 amounting to 7.5bn francs. The first [[Proletariat|working class]] disapproval began to make itself known at this time, the largest of which being a general strike in Zürich in 1912, this pressure allowed for some minor protections for workers to be implemented in 1911.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|author=G. P. Dragunov, D. Z. Iakukhin|year=1979|title=The Great Soviet Encyclopedia|title-url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Switzerland|chapter=Switzerland|section=The period of monopoly capital}}</ref>

=== World Wars ===
When the [[First World War]] began in 1914 Switzerland immediately reaffirmed its neutrality and took advantage of the conflict to reap profits by selling war material to both sides. However, the standard of living for workers declined significantly in the war years with an almost 30% drop in wages leading to an increase in strikes in 1917. During the war, Switzerland also became a hub for [[Socialism|socialist]] conferences with the Zimmerwald left being directed in part by [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref name=":1" /> The [[Russian revolution of 1917|October Revolution]] helped grow the strike movement in Switzerland and from November 12 to 14, 1918, a general political strike took place; involving about 400,000 persons, which was suppressed by the army. However, the government did give in to some demands such as [[proportional representation]] in the assembly and a 48-hour working week.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|author=G. P. Dragunov, D. Z. Iakukhin|year=1979|title=The Great Soviet Encyclopedia|title-url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Switzerland|chapter=Switzerland|section=From 1918-1939}}</ref>

The Swiss government briefly established relations with the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]] in March 1918 and a Soviet mission was sent in June but it was expelled on November 12,1918 under the false charge that the Soviets were taking part in Swiss working class demonstrations; the Swiss then broke off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union which would not be resumed until 1946. Switzerland joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1920 with the stipulation that it would not involve itself with military matters. In 1923 it established a customs union with the microstate of Liechtenstein leading Switzerland to handle most of the states foreign affairs from then on.<ref name=":2" />

In 1931 Switzerland was gripped by the [[Great Depression]] leading to an economic crisis in which the [[class struggle]] was exacerbated; leading to strikes which were brutally repressed. The suppression of the socialist movement and a wave of arrests of [[Communism|communists]] followed, whilst in contrast the government allowed [[Fascism|fascist]] groups such as the [[National Front (Switzerland)|National Front]] to set up and grow. In 1936 the Swiss economy upsurged due to an increase in exports to neighbouring [[German Reich (1933–1945)|Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy]] along with a refusal to take part in sanctions against the fascist powers. Swiss trusts such as Nestlé continued to expand abroad in this time whilst the [[Reformism|reformist]] [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland]] (SP/PS) influenced the [[Trade union|trade unions]] to side with the bourgeoisie and establish a labour peace with an agreement to not strike.<ref name=":2" />

During the [[Second World War]], beginning in 1939, Switzerland had a complex relationship with the Nazi regime since while officially neutral, Switzerland had economic and political ties with Nazi Germany. The Swiss government maintained a policy of strict neutrality during the war, but it also profited from trade with the Axis powers and had a history of accepting stolen [[Judaism|Jewish]] assets.<ref>Halbrook, S.P. (1998). Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II. Rockville: Sarpedon Publishers.</ref><ref>Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Additionally, the Swiss government's policies towards Jewish refugees were often discriminatory, with strict quotas and regulations that made it difficult for Jewish refugees to enter Switzerland.<ref>Blacklisted: The Secret War between Big Business and Union Activists" by Ross Fitzgerald (2020)</ref> The Swiss government's policy of neutrality during the war can also be seen as a way to protect its own economic interests, rather than a political stance against the atrocities committed by the Nazi regime, which is an example of capitalist system's tendency to prioritize [[profit]] over moral considerations.<ref>Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</ref>

=== Cold War ===
Swiss industrial capacity rose during the war, as did the gold reserves in the [[Swiss National Bank]] which rose from 2.2bn francs in 1940 to 4.8bn francs in 1945. A large part of this growth was as a result of the exploitation of workers whose standard of living in the war years declined by 10-13% which led to strikes in 1946-47, which granted a few minor concessions such as a small old age and disability pension in 1947 and a minimal decrease in the working week from 48 hours to 47.5 in 1950 (later reduced to 43.2 hours in 1975). In the 1950s, the backdrop of the [[Cold War]] led to a suppression of the socialist movement in the, led by the [[Swiss Party of Labour]], when an occupational blacklist known as the [[Berufsverbot]] was introduced. The Berufsverbot lasted until the 1970s and whilst active it allowed the growth of reactionary [[Nationalism|nationalist]] groups in the country.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|author=D. Z. Iakukhin|year=1979|title=The Great Soviet Encyclopedia|title-url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Switzerland|chapter=Switzerland|section=Since 1945}}</ref>

During the Cold War Switzerland was firmly tied to the interests of [[Imperial core|the West]] and imperialism although it still pursued relations with the socialist camp and promoted trade and scientific collaboration with the East. Switzerland joined the [[Organization for European Economic Cooperation]] in 1948, the [[European Free Trade Association]] in 1959, and the [[European Council]] in 1963. In 1972, Switzerland signed an agreement with the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), the precursor to the EU, concerning the reciprocal elimination of tariffs but refused to join the EEC due to its official neutrality. Despite joining the [[United Nations]] late, Switzerland was active in its organisations throughout the Cold War as well as signing the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty in 1963, the [[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]] in 1969 (ratified 1977) as well as the Biological Weapons Convention in 1972.<ref name=":3" />

Switzerland was one of the last countries in Europe to give women the right to vote aside from [[Principality of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]], [[Vatican City State|Vatican City]] and to some extent [[Portuguese Republic|Portugal]], which also put it behind most of the rest of the World as well.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Céline Stegmüller|newspaper=Swissinfo|title=The introduction of women’s suffrage worldwide|date=2021-02-04|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/democracy/the-introduction-of-women-s-suffrage-worldwide/46325798|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422152143/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/democracy/the-introduction-of-women-s-suffrage-worldwide/46325798|archive-date=2024-04-22}}</ref> The male population only voted in favour of [[women's suffrage]] at the federal level on February 7, 1971, which allowed the first women into parliament on October 31 when 11 women (5.5%) were elected. A previous referendum on February 1, 1959 rejected the proposal by 654,939 (67%) no vs. 323,727 (31%) yes and the successful vote in 1971 only passed it by a vote of 621,109 (66%) yes vs. 323,882 (34%) no. At the cantonal level the right to vote varied by canton with some cantons allowing women to vote locally at various times from 1957 onwards whilst the most [[Conservatism|conservative]] canton, [[Appenzell Ausserrhoden]], only allowed women to vote in 1990 by a federal court decision.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|title=Switzerland's Long Way to Women's Right to Vote|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326060714/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|archive-date=2024-03-26}}</ref>

== Climate ==

=== Glaciers ===
Switzerland's glaciers have lost 10% of their total volume in 2022 and 2023 due to little precipitation during the winter and high temperatures in the summer, the second-worst decrease since records began.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Swiss Academy of Sciences|title=Two catastrophic years obliterate 10% of Swiss glacier volume|date=2023-09-28|url=https://scnat.ch/en/uuid/i/b8d5798e-a75e-5a7d-a858-f7a6613524ed-Two_catastrophic_years_obliterate_10_of_Swiss_glacier_volume|archive-url=https://archive.ph/xqgYP|archive-date=2023-09-29|retrieved=2023-10-27}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:European countries]]
[[Category:Imperialist countries]]
[[Category:Global north]]