ProleWiki - User contributions [en]

Useful Idiots

2025-06-09T17:22:36Z

37.19.213.10:

'''Useful Idiots''' is a [[United States of America|US]]-based podcast by [[Katie Halper]] and [[Matt Taibbi]] which publishes articles on Substack<ref>https://usefulidiots.substack.com</ref> and videos to [[YouTube]].<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/c/usefulidiots/featured Useful Idiots on YouTube]</ref> [[Aaron Maté]] co-hosts with Katie Halper the weekly YouTube installment, ''Monday Mourning''.<ref>[https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbnXVULLEtzyJBCDWOpEx5n1jpy2BQt8E YouTube playlist: Useful Idiots Live / Monday Mourning]</ref>

== Links ==

* [https://usefulidiots.substack.com Substack]
* [https://www.youtube.com/usefulidiots YouTube]
* [https://twitter.com/UsefulIdiotpod Twitter]
* [https://feeds.megaphone.fm/usefulidiots RSS]
* [https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/useful-idiots-with-matt-taibbi-and-katie-halper/id1476110521 Apple Podcasts]
* [https://open.spotify.com/show/5BpYXlVorOw5FZ9pfpu7ff?si=a3bbed1e3a0d454c Spotify Podcasts]

== References ==
[[Category:Media outlets]]
[[Category:YouTube channels]]
<references />
[[Category:Podcasts]]

Bavarian Soviet Republic (1919)

2025-06-09T16:55:12Z

37.19.213.10:

{{Infobox country|name=Bavarian Soviet Republic|native_name=Münchner Räterepublik|image_flag=Red flag.svg|motto=Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch!|englishmotto=Workers of the world, unite!|capital=[[Munich]]|common_languages=German|leader_title1=6 April–12 April|leader_name1=[[Ernst Toller]]|life_span=1919|date_start=6 April 1919|date_end=3 May 1919|image_map=Bavaria in Weimar Republic.png|map_width=200|anthem=[[The Internationale|Die Internationale]]|leader_title2=12 April–3 May|leader_name2=[[Eugen Leviné]]}}
The '''Bavarian Soviet Republic''' was a revolutionary [[socialist state]] in the [[Weimar Republic]] that existed for less than a month in 1919.<ref>{{Citation|author=Eric James Hooglund|year=1966|title=The Munich Soviet Republic of April, 1919|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Munich_Soviet_Republic_of_April_1919.html?id=tXn3tgAACAAJ|city=Orono, Maine|publisher=University of Maine}}</ref>

==History==
After the [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German Empire]] was overthrown in November of 1918, the [[People's State of Bavaria]] was established. It was led by [[Kurt Eisner]], a [[Democratic socialism|democratic socialist]]. Eisner was assassinated by a German nationalist

On April 6, 1919, the People's State of Bavaria was overthrown and the Bavarian Soviet Republic was established. Unlike the People's State, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was connected to the [[Bolsheviks]] in [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Richard J. Evans|year=2003|title=The Coming of the Third Reich|page=158–161|city=New York|publisher=Penguin|isbn=0143034693}}</ref> On May 1, the [[Freikorps]] invaded the Soviet Republic.<ref>{{Citation|author=Gleb Albert|year=2022|title=The Charisma of World Revolution: Revolutionary Internationalism in Early Soviet Society, 1917–1927|title-url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Charisma_of_World_Revolution/PgumEAAAQBAJ|chapter='World Revolution', the Bolsheviks and Soviet Society|page=72|isbn=9789004527775|lg=https://libgen.li/edition.php?id=142811037}}</ref>

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Former socialist states]]

Black Panther Party

2025-06-09T16:42:48Z

37.19.213.10:

{{Infobox political party|name=Black Panther Party|abbreviation=BPP|leader=[[Huey Newton]]|logo=BPP logo.png|founded=15 October 1966|dissolved=Circa 1982|membership=Circa 5,000|membership_year=1969|political_orientation=[[Marxism]] [[Anti-imperialism]] '''Factions:''' [[Marxism-Leninism]] [[Maoism]] ''[[Juche]]''<ref>{{News citation|author=Tania Branigan|date=2014-6-19|title=How Black Panthers turned to North Korea in fight aganist US imperialism|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/19/black-panthers-north-korea-us-imperialism|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>|colours=Black|newspaper=[[The Black Panther (Newspaper)|''The Black Panther'']]|headquarters=Oakland, California}}

The '''Black Panther Party''' ('''BPP'''), originally the '''Black Panther Party for Self-Defense''', was a revolutionary socialist political party founded by college students [[Bobby Seale]] (Chairman) and [[Huey Newton|Huey P. Newton]] in October 1966 in [[Oakland, California]].<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Richard Kreitner|date=2015-10-15|title=October 15, 1966: The Black Panther Party Is Founded|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/october-15-1966-the-black-panther-party-is-founded/|newspaper=The Nation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221130357/http://www.thenation.com/article/october-15-1966-the-black-panther-party-is-founded/|archive-date=2015-12-21}}</ref> The party was active in the [[United States of America|United States]] from 1966 until 1982, with chapters in numerous major cities, and international chapters in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|United Kingdom]] in the early 1970s<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Mark Brown|date=2013-12-27|title=Britain's black power movement is at risk of being forgotten, say historians|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/27/britain-black-power-movement-risk-forgotten-historians|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103095456/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/27/britain-black-power-movement-risk-forgotten-historians|archive-date=2017-01-03}}</ref> and [[Algeria]] from 1969 to 1972.<ref>{{Citation|last=Meghelli|first=Samir|contribution=From Harlem to Algiers: Transnational Solidarities Between the African American Freedom Movement and Algeria, 1962-1978|title=Black Routes to Islam|editor-last=Marable|editor-first=Manning|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2009|pages=99–119|author=Meghelli, Samir|page=99-119}}</ref> At its inception on October 15, 1966, the Black Panther Party's core practice was its open carry armed citizens' patrols (copwatching) to monitor the behavior of officers of the Oakland Police Department and challenge [[police brutality]] in the city.

In 1969, the Director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI), [[John Edgar Hoover]], described the party as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country".<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Hoover Calls Panthers Top Threat to Security|date=1969-07-16|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/147638465}}</ref> He made extensive use of the Counter Intelligence Program ([[COINTELPRO]]), utilizing such tactics as: surveillance, infiltration, perjury and police harassment to undermine Panther leadership, incriminate and assassinate party members, to discredit and criminalize the BPP. COINTELPRO was responsible for the assassination of [[Fred Hampton]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Williams, Jakobi|year=2013|title=From the Bullet to the Ballot: The Illinois Chapter of the Black Panther Party and Racial Coalition Politics in Chicago|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469608167_williams|page=167|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-3816-7}}</ref> The police and FBI killed at least 38 Black Panthers.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Stansfield Smith|newspaper=[[Multipolarista]]|title=The United States has many political prisoners. Here’s a list|date=2022-08-09|url=https://multipolarista.com/2022/08/09/us-political-prisoners-list/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810130241/https://multipolarista.com/2022/08/09/us-political-prisoners-list/|archive-date=2022-08-10|retrieved=2022-08-11}}</ref>

From 1969 onwards, a variety of community social programs became a core activity.<ref>{{Citation|author=Austin, Curtis J.|year=2006|title=Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party|title-url=https://archive.org/details/upagainstwallvio00aust|isbn=978-1-55728-827-1}}</ref> The Party instituted the [[Free Breakfast for Children]] Programs to address food injustice, and community health clinics for education and treatment of diseases including sickle cell anemia, tuberculosis, and later HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{Citation|author=Pearson, Hugh|year=1994|title=The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-201-48341-3}}</ref> The BPP formed alliances with other [[Communism|communist]] and [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] groups including the [[American Indian Movement]], [[Brown Berets]], [[Young Lords]], [[Young Patriots]], and [[White Panther Party]].<ref>{{Web citation|date=2023-02-14|title=Marshall “Eddie” Conway (1946-2023): A life committed to the people and revolutionary change|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/marshall-eddie-conway-1946-2023-a-life-committed-to-the-people-and-revolutionary-change/|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215052049/https://www.liberationnews.org/marshall-eddie-conway-1946-2023-a-life-committed-to-the-people-and-revolutionary-change/|archive-date=2023-02-15|retrieved=2023-02-16|author=Nino Brown}}</ref>

Membership of the party reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, but it began to decline over the following decade. After its leaders and members were vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In-fighting among Party leadership, fomented largely by the FBI's COINTELPRO operation, led to expulsions and defections that decimated the membership.<ref>{{Citation|author=Bloom, Joshua; Martin, Waldo E. Jr.|year=2013|title=Black against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party|page=315|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520953543}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Founding ===
In October 1966, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale with the goal of providing armed protection to oppressed minority communities in the United States. Inspired by [[Malcolm X]], the party carried out large-scale militant activities in the [[State of California]]. In 1967, the United States government began cracking down on the group by arresting their leaders. In response, the BPP-led "[[Free Huey]]" movement was started. By 1968, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] launched [[COINTELPRO]] in order to escalate their crackdowns on the BPP. [[Bobby Hutton]], an unarmed Black Panther, was shot to death by the police in April of 1968. The Black Panther Party started to gain rise in [[Chicago]] under the local leadership of [[Fred Hampton]] in 1969. The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] responded by executing both Hampton and the 17-year-old [[Mark Clark]] while they were sleeping.<ref name=":0">[https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/index.htm Black Panther Party]</ref>

=== Sabotage and split ===
In 1970, the imprisoned Bobby Seale published ''Seize The Time'' in order to spread the word of what had happened to the BPP. Around this same time, the administration of [[Richard Nixon]] began large-scale crackdowns on the BPP's members in the state of Connecticut. Huey Newton is also released from prison around this time.<ref name=":0" />

As part of [[COINTELPRO]], the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] encouraged a split between the east coast branch of the party led by [[Eldridge Cleaver]] and the west coast branch led by Huey Newton by sending forged letters to both sides accusing the other side of treason or working with [[police]]. [[Sam Napier]], circulation manager of the party's newspaper, sided with Newton after he expelled Cleaver, and Deputy Minister for Defense [[Robert Webb]] sided with Cleaver. In 1971, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] murdered Napier, and Webb died under suspicious circumstances while allegedly fighting Newton supporters.<ref>{{Web citation|author=[[Eugene Puryear]]|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Tales from the pages of COINTELPRO|date=2024-02-05|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/tales-from-the-pages-of-cointelpro/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206142107/https://www.liberationnews.org/tales-from-the-pages-of-cointelpro/|archive-date=2024-02-06}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 1970s, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] almost completely wiped out the party by taking [[Political prisoner|political prisoners]] based on forged evidence and by using chemical warfare against the BPP's members.<ref name=":0" />

Entering the 1980s, the BPP basically ceased to exist.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ollie A. Johnson III|year=1988|title=Explaining the Demise of The Black Panther Party: The Role of Internal Factors|title-url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ollie-a-johnson-iii-explaining-the-demise-of-the-black-panther-party|chapter=Historical Overview|chapter-url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ollie-a-johnson-iii-explaining-the-demise-of-the-black-panther-party#toc1|page=6|quote=The BPP formally ended with the closure of the Oakland Community School in 1982.|pdf=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ollie-a-johnson-iii-explaining-the-demise-of-the-black-panther-party.pdf}}</ref> Finally, in 1989, Huey Newton was shot to death on the streets of Oakland, California.<ref name=":0" />

== Ten-Point Program ==
The Black Panther Party first publicized its original "What We Want Now!" Ten-Point program on May 15, 1967, following the Sacramento action, in the second issue of ''The Black Panther'' newspaper.<ref name=":1">''The Black Panther'', May 15, 1967, p. 3</ref>

# We want freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black Community.
# We want full employment for our people.
# We want an end to the robbery by the Capitalists of our Black Community.
# We want decent housing, fit for shelter of human beings.
# We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society.
# We want all Black men to be exempt from military service.
# We want an immediate end to POLICE BRUTALITY and MURDER of Black people.
# We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails.
# We want all Black people when brought to trial to be tried in court by a jury of their peer group or people from their Black Communities, as defined by the Constitution of the United States.
# We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice and peace.

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Black nationalism]]
[[Category:Civil rights]]
[[Category:Targets of intelligence operations]]
[[Category:Statesian communist parties]]

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

2025-06-09T16:29:42Z

37.19.213.10:

{{#SEO:
|image=Chollima_monument_at_night.jpg}}
{{Infobox country
| name = Democratic People's Republic of Korea
| native_name = 조선민주주의인민공화국
| image_coat = Emblem of the DPRK.svg
| image_flag = Flag of the DPRK.svg
| symbol_type = Emblem
|national_anthem=애국가 ''Aegukka'' ("The Patriotic Song")| image_map = Democratic People's Republic of Korea (orthographic_projection).svg
| map_caption = Territories of Korea presently occupied by the United States are shown in light green.
| map_width = 220px
| capital = [[Pyongyang]]
| largest_city = capital
|mode_of_production=[[Socialism]]| government_type = Unitary ''[[Juche]]'' [[Socialist state|people's republic]]
| established_event2 = Founding of the DPRK
| established_date2 = 9 September 1948
| established_event1 = Start of partial US occupation
| established_date1 = 8 September 1945
|area_km2=120,540| population_estimate = 25,845,400 (77,048,000 including Koreans under [[neocolonialism|neocolonial]] occupation)
| population_estimate_year = 2020
|unemployment=2.8%<ref name="UNdata">UNData (2021). ''[https://data.un.org/en/iso/kp.html DPRK – UNData]''</ref>|GDP_nominal=$16.3 billion<ref name="UNdata">UNData (2021). ''[https://data.un.org/en/iso/kp.html DPRK – UNData]''</ref>|GDP_nominal_per_capita=$639.6<ref name="UNdata">UNData (2021). ''[https://data.un.org/en/iso/kp.html DPRK – UNData]''</ref>|GDP_nominal_year=2021|export=$1.1 billion<ref name="UNdata">UNData (2021). ''[https://data.un.org/en/iso/kp.html DPRK – UNData]''</ref>|export_year=2020|import=$3.46 billion<ref name="UNdata">UNData (2021). ''[https://data.un.org/en/iso/kp.html DPRK – UNData]''</ref>|import_year=2020|HDI=.785 (High)|currency=Korean People's Won|currency_code=KPW|drives_on=right|calling_code=+850|iso3166code=KP|cctld=.kp| leader_title1 = General Secretary of the Workers' Party
| leader_name1 = [[Kim Jong-un]]
| leader_title2 = President of the Presidium
| leader_name2 = [[Choe Ryong-hae]]
| leader_title3 = First Vice Chairman of the State Affairs Commission
| leader_name3 = Choe Ryong-hae
| leader_title4 = Premier of the Cabinet
| leader_name4 = [[Kim Tok-hun]]
| leader_title5 = Chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly
| leader_name5 = Pak Thae-song
}}
The '''Democratic People's Republic of Korea''' ('''DPRK'''; Korean: 조선민주주의인민공화국, ''Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk''), also known as '''People's Korea''' and incorrectly referred to as '''North Korea''' by [[bourgeois media]], is a socialist country in [[East Asia]]. [[Korea]] is one nation, but the southern half of Korea is occupied by the [[United States of America|US]]-backed [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] [[Republic of Korea]], also known as Capitalist Korea. DPRK's capital city is [[Pyongyang]].

The DPRK is led by the [[Workers' Party of Korea]] (WPK) and the [[Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea]]. According to its constitution, the DPRK is an "independent [[socialist state]]", guided by the ideology of [[Juche]] which is a derivative of [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxism–Leninism]] originally codified by [[Kim Il-sung|Kim Il-Sung]].<ref>Articles 1 and 3 of the [https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peoples_Republic_of_Korea_1998.pdf?lang=en Constitution of the DPRK]</ref>

While the DPRK distanced itself from [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]]'s ideological leadership in the 1960s, some authors still consider it a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] socialist state.<ref>{{Textcite|author=Thomas Stock|year=2019|title=North Korea’s Marxism-Leninism: fraternal criticisms and the development of North Korean ideology in the 1960s|pdf=|lg=http://libgen.gs/scimag/ads.php?doi=10.1215%2F21581665-7258081&downloadname=|doi=10.1215/21581665-7258081}}</ref>

In 2017, DPRK's Minister of Foreign affairs, Ri Yong Ho, stated at the [[United Nations]] General Assembly that "The U.S. had put [[Economic sanctions|sanctions]] against our country from the very first day of its foundation, and the over 70-year long history of the DPRK can be said in a sense a history of struggle, persevering along the road of self-development under the harshest sanctions in the world." Ri also stated that the essence of the situation of the Korean peninsula is a confrontation between the DPRK and the US, where the DPRK tries to defend its national dignity and sovereignty against the hostile policy and nuclear threats of the US, and points out that it was the US who first introduced [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]] to the Korean peninsula. Ri stated that "The very reason the DPRK had to possess nuclear weapons is because of the U.S., and it had to strengthen and develop its nuclear force onto the current level to cope with the U.S. [...] Our national nuclear force is, to all intents and purposes, a war deterrent for putting an end to nuclear threat of the U.S. and for preventing its military invasion".<ref name=":0">Ri Yong Ho, DPRK Minister for Foreign Affairs. [https://gadebate.un.org/sites/default/files/gastatements/72/kp_en.pdf "Statement by H.E. Mr. RI YONG HO, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea at the General Debate of the 72 Session of the United Nations General Assembly."] New York, 23rd September 2017. gadebate.un.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220709114619/https://gadebate.un.org/sites/default/files/gastatements/72/kp_en.pdf Archived] 2022-08-28.</ref>

Minister Ri also clarified DPRK's nuclear policy by quoting [[Kim Jong-un]] as saying that international justice can only be achieved when the [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] independent countries are strong enough, and that possession of nuclear deterrence by the DPRK is a righteous self-defensive measure taken as an ultimate option, pursuant to this principle, and further clarified that the DPRK "do[es] not have any intention at all to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against the countries that do not join in the U.S. military actions against the DPRK."<ref name=":0" />

DPRK representative Kim Song stated at the 2021 UN General Assembly, "If the U.S. wants to see the Korean war, the most prolonged and long-lasting war in the world, come to an end, and if it is really desirous of peace and reconciliation on the Korean peninsula, it should take the first step towards giving up its hostile policy against the DPRK by stopping permanently the joint military exercises and the deployment of all kinds of strategic weapons which are levelled at the DPRK in and around the Korean peninsula."<ref name=":1">Kim Song. [https://estatements.unmeetings.org/estatements/10.0010/20210927/f9hI1UVcyVQ6/Ina2tpqa5rlW_en.pdf "Statement by Head of the DPRK Delegation H.E. Mr. KIM SONG, Permanent Representative of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea to the United Nations At the General Debate of the 76th session of the United Nations General Assembly."] New York, 27 September 2021. UNmeetings.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220828072554/https://estatements.unmeetings.org/estatements/10.0010/20210927/f9hI1UVcyVQ6/Ina2tpqa5rlW_en.pdf Archived] 2022-08-28.</ref>

In 1965 [[Che Guevara]] said that the DPRK "was a model to which revolutionary [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]] should aspire".<ref>https://gowans.blog/2007/03/03/understanding-north-korea/</ref><ref>{{Textcite|author=Bruce Cumings|year=2005|title=Korea’s place in the sun: a modern history|pdf=|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company; p. 404|lg=}}</ref>

==History==

=== Early history and Japanese occupation ===
{{Main article|Korea}}

===Division of Korea===
Following the defeat of [[Japanese Empire|Japan]] and the end of the [[Second World War]], Japan lost control of its colonies, including what was formerly the [[Korean Empire]]. As a result of negotiations between the Soviet Union and the United States, the [[Korea|Korean Peninsula]] was divided into occupation zones along the 38th Parallel North. Although there was an attempt at establishing the [[People's Republic of Korea]], the nascent state was outlawed by U.S. forces. In the northern zone, the Soviets allowed Koreans to govern themselves, and a system of people's committees developed into a full provisional government.<ref name=":12">{{Citation|author=Stephen Gowans|year=2018|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom|chapter=The Patriot State|page=88–93|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf|city=Montreal|publisher=Baraka Books|isbn=9781771861427|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref> Originally, the division of Korea was not intended to be an actual dividing line nor a border to split the country, but simply meant as designated areas where Soviet and U.S. forces would be temporarily assisting Korea as it stabilized after liberation from Japan and formed an independent Korean state. However, the U.S. sought to prolong Korea's division in order to form Korea into a state subordinate to U.S. interests, pushing for separate elections in the south despite opposition from the [[The people|masses]] and despite attempts among the Korean populace to form a unified nation.<ref name=":9" />

Under conditions in which the U.S. imperialists were occupying south Korea and foreign and domestic [[Reactionary|reactionaries]] were gathered together in the occupied zone and opposing the founding of a unified independent Korean state, the policy of constructing a powerful democratic base in the northern half of Korea was adopted. The formation of a broad united front to rally the masses of people in all walks of life was the first question to be solved. Thus, early in 1946, a [[united front]] was formed of different parties and groupings, democratic forces of various social strata.<ref name=":9" />

=== Democratic and economic reforms in north ===
On the basis of the people's committees, the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (Korean: 북조선림시인민위원회; Hanja: 北朝鮮臨時人民委員會) was formed on February 8 of 1946.<ref>[https://dprktoday.com/news/43457 "북조선림시인민위원회." ("North Korea Provisional People's Committee.")] 조선의 오늘, 주체109(2020)년 2월 8일. DPRK Today, February 8, Juche 109 (2020). [https://web.archive.org/web/20231004150520/https://dprktoday.com/news/43457 Archived] 2023-10-05.</ref><ref>[https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0070131 “북조선임시인민위원회(北朝鮮臨時人民委員會).”] Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. [[Archived]] 2023-10-05.</ref> The leaders of the Korean resistance agreed to make Kim Il-sung the new leader of Korea, and he became president of the provisional government on 8 February 1946.<ref name=":12" />

In March of 1946, the [[20-Point Platform]] (Korean: 20개조정강) for realizing Korea's [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]], anti-[[Feudalism|feudal]] [[Democracy|democratic]] reforms was announced, including such items as thorough liquidation of all remnants of Japanese imperialist rule, waging an implacable struggle against reactionary and anti-democratic elements, carrying out land reform, [[Nationalization|nationalizing]] important industries, direct and equal suffrage, and the institution of free medical care for the poor, among other points.<ref>Kim Han Gil. [https://archive.org/details/ModernHistoryOfKorea/page/n1/mode/2up "Modern History of Korea."] Foreign Languages Publishing House. Pyongyang, Korea, 1979.</ref><ref>[http://www.jajusibo.com/58698 <nowiki>“[헌법으로 보는 북한-서문] 사회 전 분야의 방향이 제시된 20개조 정강.” ("[North Korea as seen through the Constitution - Preface] A 20-point platform that sets out the direction for all areas of society.")</nowiki>] 자주시보, 2022-02-25. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220707211557/http://www.jajusibo.com/58698 Archived] 2022-07-07.</ref><ref name=":15">[https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=767 <nowiki>“[북 현대사] 북조선림시인민위원회와 토지개혁 (4).” ("[North Korea Modern History] North Korea Provisional People’s Committee and Land Reform (4)")</nowiki>] 통일시대. April 6, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20231004152620/https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=767 Archived] 2023-10-04.</ref> On November 3, 1946, the first democratic election in the history of Korea was held in the north, and the People's Committee of North Korea (Korean: 북조선인민위원회; Hanja: 北朝鮮人民委員會), which was no longer provisional, was created in February of 1947, functioning as the organ of the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].<ref name=":9" />

The new government redistributed land from [[Landlord|landlords]] and Japanese officials to [[Peasantry|peasants]], nationalized large companies, shortened the work day to eight hours (seven for dangerous occupations), banned [[Child labour|child labor]], established social security and paid vacations, and enforced gender equality.<ref name=":12" />

As a result of land reform, feudal landownership, which was the social and economic base of the undemocratic reactionary forces, was done away with in the rural villages of the north. At the time, the matter of land reform was of great concern, due to a large percentage of Korea's population being peasant farmers, many engaged in [[sharecropping]] and being [[Exploitation|exploited]] in feudal relations as well as by Japanese colonialism.<ref name=":15" /> In addition to land reform, the nationalization of key industries was undertaken, wiping out the political and economic bases of imperialists and domestic reactionaries and promoting the general rehabilitation and development of the national economy in the wake of the Japanese colonial period. The Provisional People's Committee implemented the Law on the Nationalization of Important Industries in August 1946. Under it, all large factories, mines, power stations, railway transport, telecommunication facilities, banks and commercial and cultural establishments were made the property of the Korean people. Factories and other enterprises which had been owned by pro-Japanese elements were confiscated without compensation and became the property of the people, to be used for their own benefit rather than for the extraction of Korea's wealth for imperial Japan's benefit. Democratic reforms, beginning with the Labor Law and the Law on the Equality of the Sexes, were enforced, putting an end to unlimited exploitation of the working class and liberating women from feudal subordination.<ref name=":9" />

Author [[Kim Byong Sik]] describes the changes in social, economic, and class relations in the north during this time, noting that as a result of the reforms following liberation, capitalist economic relations were reduced to a small scale in limited areas of the economy, while socialist economic relations became dominant in all areas of the economy:<blockquote>Radical changes were effected in social, economic and class relations in the northern half of the Republic, a people’s democratic system was established and a powerful revolutionary base for an all-Korea victory was founded. In other words, all colonial and semi-feudal components were removed, and socialist economic relations, based on state and cooperative economy, came to occupy a leading position in all areas of the people’s economy, with capitalist relations confined to only small commodity production by private farms and handicraft enterprises in urban areas and to some commerce and small-scale industry. Concerning class relations, landlords, comprador capitalists, pro-Japanese elements and traitors were eliminated and working people became the masters of the country, the leading role of the working class increased and the worker-peasant alliance was consolidated. In this way, the balance of forces developed decisively in favor of the revolution.<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>As the above author later notes, by 1947 state-controlled industry accounted for 80.2% of industrial output, and private industry for only 19.8% of industrial output. In addition, mining was completely state-controlled. Industrial production jumped 70 per cent, and labor productivity 51 per cent, in fiscal 1947 in comparison with the previous year. 1947 was the first year in which an [[Planned economy|economic plan]] was implemented. 1948 also saw a successfully implemented economic plan.

=== Founding of Korean People's Army ===
The Provisional People's Committee trained national cadres and prepared a revolutionary armed force to defend the people's democratic system, establishing the [[Korean People's Army]] on February 8, 1948.

=== Reactionary regime forms in south ===
Throughout this time, reactionary and imperialist forces in the U.S.-occupied portion of Korea had been seeking ways to prolong Korea's division in order to form a state which was subordinate to U.S. interests and in which anti-communist forces would remain in power. As democratic reforms were taking place in the north and the base of power was being removed from feudal landlords, Japanese collaborators, and other reactionary forces in the north, the reactionaries were moving south, some of them forming right-wing anti-communist paramilitary groups such as the [[Northwest Youth League]] (Korean: 서북청년회), who later committed atrocities against ordinary citizens in the name of the southern regime, and many of whom went on to become police and members of the local government.<ref>Flenniken, Lauren. [https://www.jejuweekly.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1435 “The Northwest Youth League.”] Jejuweekly.com. 2011-04-10. [https://web.archive.org/web/20231005035904/https://www.jejuweekly.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1435 Archived] 2023-10-05.</ref> Among the imperialists' plans was the plan to hold a separate election in the south, which was opposed by many of the Korean masses.

In this context, Kim Il Sung submitted the draft Provisional Constitution of Korea for discussion by all the people north and south and he proposed the election of an all-Korea supreme legislative assembly through a general, direct, equal and secret ballot. At the same time he called on the political parties and social organizations of south Korea to hold a south-north joint conference to oppose the separate election and to discuss ways and means of saving the nation. In response to this call, a joint conference was held in Pyongyang on April 20, 1948, with attendants representing a range of political orientations. A resolution was adopted to boycott the separate elections. At the time of the controversial separate election held in May 1948, more than 140 polling stations and a number of police stations were destroyed and burned. The U.S.-backed southern regime resorted to fascist terror to suppress the opposition. After proceeding with the elections, the regime formed as a puppet regime consisting of collaborators, landlords, and subservient capitalists.<ref name=":9" />

===Founding of the DPRK ===
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea was founded on 9 September 1948. The illegitimate government of the occupied portion of Korea (often referred to as South Korea, or [[Republic of Korea]]) had been established earlier the same year, when dictator [[Syngman Rhee]], who was referred to as an "imported expatriate" and "extreme rightist" in a CIA document of the time,<ref>[https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/220065.pdf?v=d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e "March 18, 1948 Central Intelligence Agency, ORE 15/48, 'The Current Situation in Korea'"]. ''Wilson Center Digital Archive''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220729051304/https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/220065.pdf?v=d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e Archived] from the original.</ref> came to power due to U.S. influence despite many Koreans opposing the holding of separate elections in the south. In DPRK, Kim Il-Sung became the first [[Premier of the DPRK]], a position he would hold until 1972. DPRK soon requested for U.S. and Soviet troops to leave Korea. The Soviets left on 25 September, but the U.S. occupiers refused to leave.<ref name=":1102">{{Citation|author=Stephen Gowans|year=2018|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom|chapter=The Political Partition of Korea|page=114|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf|city=Montreal|publisher=Baraka Books|isbn=9781771861427|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

The Occupied Korean government was hostile to socialism and to the DPRK. Even though Western media accuses the DPRK of initiating the [[Fatherland Liberation War]] (often referred to as the Korean War), numerous acts of violence were perpetrated by the illegitimate southern government that were tantamount to war—namely the [[Jeju Uprising|massacre on Jeju Island]] that targeted communists. The people of Jeju had been protesting the formation of a separate southern regime and the holding of separate elections in the south, but were eventually violently suppressed by the US-backed southern regime. The death toll was composed of thousands of civilians, many of whom were not affiliated with the [[Workers' Party of South Korea]] or communism at all. In addition, the [[Yeosu-Suncheon rebellion]] of 1948 was a rebellion among soldiers in the south who began guerrilla-style fights against the military, as the rebelling soldiers refused to participate in the brutal suppression of the Jeju uprising. Suppression of this rebellion by the southern regime led to hundreds of civilian deaths.<ref>[https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html “439 Civilians Confirmed Dead in Yeosu-Suncheon Uprising of 1948.”] Jan. 8, 2009. Hankyoreh. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230614174428/https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/332032.html Archived] 2023-06-14.</ref> Furthermore, paramilitary groups from the Republic of Korea illegally crossed the border into the DPRK on multiple occasions.

In DPRK, a two-year economic plan for 1949-1950 was adopted on the basis of the previous plans of 1947 and 1948, with plans for furthering the socialist transformation of the economy as well as the continued correction of distortions in the economy which were the result of the colonial period. However, this plan had to be suspended due to the escalation of the war in 1950.<ref name=":9" />

===Fatherland Liberation War===
[[File:CIA document pages 1 and 2.jpg|thumb|1950 CIA document stating that after the Korean People's Army entered Seoul, more than 50% of students were actively aiding communists, many volunteering for the army, and that the working class of Seoul generally supported the north.]]
{{Main article|Fatherland Liberation War}}
During the Fatherland Liberation War, DPRK forces almost repelled the illegal occupation army; however, the [[United Nations]] and the United States sent extra forces to fight DPRK troops. Western forces pushed DPRK forces all the way to the border of the newly formed [[China|People's Republic of China]], which had itself repelled reactionary [[Kuomintang]] forces from the [[People's Republic of China|mainland]]. PRC forces intervened to protect Korean sovereignty, repelling Western troops once more as part of the War to Resist the U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea campaign. The majority of the fighting during the rest of the [[Fatherland Liberation War]] took place near the 38th Parallel North, with only minor border changes occurring after a ceasefire was signed. The DPRK technically remains at war with its illegitimate southern neighbour as no truce has been signed between the two.
[[File:Thatched huts go up in flames after B-26 bombers unload napalm bombs on a village near Hanchon, North Korea, on May 10, 1951 (AP photo).png|thumb|Thatched huts go up in flames after B-26 bombers unload napalm bombs on a village near Hanchon, DPRK, on May 10, 1951.]]
Virtually all of the major cities in DPRK were severely damaged and hundreds of thousands of civilians killed by U.S. saturation bombing during the war. The tonnage of bombs dropped on the north was about the same as the total dropped by the U.S. against Japan during the Second World War. By 1952, the bombing was so complete that the U.S. Air Force had run out of targets. According to an AP News article, the U.S. dropped 635,000 tons of bombs on Korea during the war, most of it in the north, including 32,500 tons of [[napalm]]. In the present day, DPRK citizens continue to find unexploded ordinance and be injured by old bombs that were dropped by the US and UN forces, and have to evacuate areas and send in bomb squads where such bombs are found, as well as educate citizens, especially children, about the explosives.<ref>Talmadge, Eric. [https://apnews.com/article/international-news-asia-pacific-ap-top-news-north-korea-dd6256bad51e458cb2e8a1bf64b5c2b6 “64 Years after Korean War, North Still Digging up Bombs.”] AP NEWS. Associated Press. April 22, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230313163201/https://apnews.com/article/international-news-asia-pacific-ap-top-news-north-korea-dd6256bad51e458cb2e8a1bf64b5c2b6 Archived] 2023-03-13.</ref>

US sanctions on DPRK began in conjunction with the 1950 escalation of the war, with the US imposing an export ban on DPRK and forbidding financial transactions by or on behalf of DPRK. This began with U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]] ordering naval blockade of Korean coast and imposing a total trade embargo against the DPRK in June of 1950. This was followed by the Trading with the Enemy Act in December 1950, to terminate all US economic contacts with the DPRK and freezing its assets. Truman also imposed an embargo against China, freezing Chinese assets in US at this time. In 1952, an embargo was imposed on all exports of industrial equipment and raw materials.<ref name=":2">Gary Clyde Hufbauer (PIIE), Jeffrey J. Schott (PIIE), Kimberly Ann Elliott (PIIE) and Barbara Oegg (PIIE). [https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/case-50-1-and-93-1 “US and UN v. North Korea: Case 50-1 and 93-1.”] 2016. Peterson Institute for International Economics. May 1, 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220909082604/https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/case-50-1-and-93-1 Archived] 2022-09-09.

‌</ref>

===Post-Fatherland Liberation War===
[[File:Pyongyang after U.S. Air Force bombing.jpg|thumb|Pyongyang after its destruction by U.S. Air Force bombing during the war.]]
[[File:Chollima monument at night.jpg|thumb|The Chollima Monument at night, with the [[Pyongyang]] skyline in the background.]]
Following the war, the people of DPRK were faced with the task of converting the armistice into a lasting peace, rebuilding the destroyed economy as soon as possible, improving the people's living conditions, and strengthening the country politically, economically, and militarily as the base of the Korean revolution and converting it into a powerful material force for the reunification of Korea.

The sixth plenum of the Central Committee of the Korean Workers' Party was called on August 5, 1953 to consider these pressing tasks. A decision was made to promote postwar rehabilitation and development of the people's economy in three basic stages, according to a proposal by Kim II Sung. The first stage would be a period of six months to a year in which preparations and adjustments would be made for general rehabilitation. In the second stage, a Three Year Plan would be carried out to recover the economy to pre-war levels. In the third stage, a Five Year Plan would be worked out to complete the first stage of industrialization, to lay the foundation for socialist industrialization.<ref name=":9" /> Author Kim Han Gil writes that the general task of laying the foundations of socialism was largely defined in two aspects: [[Relations of production|production relations]] and [[productive forces]]. In the first aspect, the task was to transform all the relations of production along socialist lines. In the second aspect the task was to establish the solid foundation of an independent national economy while laying the foundation for industrialization.<ref>Kim Han Gil. [https://archive.org/details/ModernHistoryOfKorea/mode/1up?q=peasant&view=theater "Modern History of Korea."] Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, Korea, 1979.</ref>

A focus was placed on developing heavy industry as a priority, while simultaneously developing light industry and agriculture. Heavy industry was needed in order to maintain an independent national economy and to make the development of light industry and agriculture possible, while light industry and agriculture were necessary for improving the living conditions of the people, impoverished by the wartime destruction.<ref name=":9" />

After nine months, the first stage of the three-stage recovery and development plan was successfully carried out. During this stage, several thousands of temporary houses were built in the towns and countryside and rehabilitation and construction in the countryside were started. Prices were lowered, cities began being rebuilt, factories were restored and repaired, and various industrial and agricultural enterprises went into operation, beginning with the Kangson Steel Works, Songjin Steel Works, Sunghori Cement Factory and Komusan Cement Factory, with various enterprises in light industry such as Nampo Glass Factory and Pyongyang Spinning Mill being prepared for full-scale operation.<ref name=":9" />

Following this preparatory stage, the Party proposed a Three Year Plan for 1954-1956, the second stage of the recovery and development plan adopted after the war's end. The Three Year Plan aimed to restore the economy to pre-war levels, further raise the peoples' living standards, as well as correct the distortions of the economy resulting from the Japanese colonial period, and to continue developing heavy industry to lay a basis for socialist industrialization. The plan aimed to increase industrial production beyond 1949 levels, to produce grain at 1949 levels (the highest recorded previous grain production), further mechanization of agriculture, and to double the output of foodstuff and daily necessities compared to 1949 levels, as well as a five-fold increase in the production of cotton fabrics and a three-fold increase in production of rubber shoes. According to ''Modern Korea'', these aims were met in two years and four months, and by the end of January 1955, industrial production of state-run and cooperative enterprises exceeded the level set for 1956 in the Three Year Plan. Additionally, on the basis of results accomplished during an experimental period in 1953-1954, the trend toward agricultural cooperatives was phased into a mass movement in 1956, and by the end of February 1956, 14,651 agricultural cooperatives were organized, comprising 65.2% of total farm households and accounting for 62.1% of the total land under cultivation.<ref name=":9" />

After the armistice agreement, the US continued to prohibit all US economic contacts with DPRK in line with its general strategic controls against socialist countries.<ref name=":2" />

In 1988, South Korean and the US eased isolation of People's Korea by opening bilateral dialogue and allowing limited export of goods to the North for humanitarian purposes. Some travel restrictions were also lifted on a case-by-case basis. However, in that same year, DPRK was added to the [[U.S. State Department]] [[State Sponsors of Terrorism]] list.<ref name=":3">[https://nodutdol.org/sanctions-of-empire/ "제국의 제재 - Sanctions of Empire."] Nodutdol. October 20, 2020. [https://nodutdol.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Sanctions-of-Empire.pdf PDF]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220520095404/https://nodutdol.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Sanctions-of-Empire.pdf Archive].</ref><ref>[https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/democratic-peoples-republic-of-korea/ “Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.”] United States Department of State.</ref>

A unified team under the name Korea (KOR) competed in 1991 World Table Tennis Championships and FIFA World Youth Championship with athletes from both North and South Korea. In 1991, the team used the Unification Flag and the anthem "Arirang".

In 1992, the ROK announced suspension of the "Team Spirit" military training exercise normally conducted each year in conjunction with US forces stationed in South Korea. On January 22, US Undersecretary of State Arnold Kanter and Korean Workers' Party Secretary Kim Yong Sun held the first of a series of bilateral talks, focusing on the future of US–People's Korean relations and unification issues on the peninsula. However, following difficulties regarding the Joint Nuclear Control Committee, the US and ROK decided to conduct the Team Spirit exercise after all, and DPRK refused to negotiate bilateral nuclear inspections unless the Team Spirit exercise would be cancelled. By 1993, the US and South Korea confirmed that Team Spirit would proceed as planned, and DPRK ended negotiations.<ref name=":2" />

In July 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]], during a visit to the South Korean side of the DMZ, warned that the United States would respond to DPRK use of nuclear weapons with massive conventional or nuclear retaliation. In later January/early February of 1994, US officials in Washington let it be known they were considering transferring Patriot missiles to South Korea as a defensive move. In Seoul, a Defense Ministry official called for the resumption of Team Spirit unless the North agreed to full nuclear inspections. The US warned DPRK that unless it would allow inspections, it would bring a sanctions resolution before the UN Security Council.<ref name=":2" />

In July 1994, Kim Il-sung passed away.

===Arduous March===
The period of economic crisis, floods, and famine in DPRK known as the Arduous March (Korean: 고난의 행군) lasted from approximately 1994 to 1998. Compounding factors such as the [[overthrow of the Soviet Union]] (and subsequent worldwide economic shifts), unprecedented natural disasters, and economic sanctions imposed on the DPRK all contributed to the severity of the crisis at that time. The thriving Korean economy, which had exceeded south Korea's in production of electricity, coal, fertilizer, machine tools and steel even into the 1980s, was thrown into turmoil as it faced these factors in the 1990s.<ref>Kim, Crystal. [https://www.liberationnews.org/north-koreans-mourn-death-of-html/ “North Koreans Mourn Death of Leader Kim Jong Il.”] Liberation News, 22 Dec. 2011, Accessed 10 Apr. 2023. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230410044940/https://www.liberationnews.org/north-koreans-mourn-death-of-html/ Archived] 2023-04-10.</ref><ref>[https://www.north-korea-travel.com/north-korean-history.html “North Korean History 1980s & 1990s | KTG® Tours.”] North-Korea-Travel.com.</ref>

The imperialist United States and its allies took advantage of this period, attempting to make the situation more deadly and more economically devastating via economic sanctions, to push DPRK into total collapse. It was at this time that the "military-first" policy of Songun (Korean: 선군; Hanja: 先軍) was initiated under the leadership of Kim Jong Il, in response to the constant threat of military aggression from the United States aimed at DPRK's destruction. The policy came of the determination that maintaining a strong military was essential for the defense of the country and the protection of its socialist system, and that the military was the backbone of the revolution and that it was necessary to give military affairs priority in order to proceed with socialist construction.<ref>[https://exploredprk.com/articles/the-evolution-of-dprks-socialist-lifestyle/ "The Evolution of DPRK’s Socialist Lifestyle."] Explore DPRK. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230928110755/https://exploredprk.com/articles/the-evolution-of-dprks-socialist-lifestyle/ Archived] 1012-09-28.</ref><ref name=":14">Ri Jong Chol. "Songun Politics in Korea." Foreign Languages Publishing House. Pyongyang, Korea, Juche 101 (2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20230523072842/https://kkfonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Songun-Politics-In-Korea.pdf <nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>]</ref><ref>[https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1435 <nowiki>"[북현대사] 선군정치의 시작." ("[North Modern History] The beginning of Songun politics.")</nowiki>] 한반도정론: 북 바로알기. 통일시대. 2023-02-27. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230927173059/https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1435 Archived] 2023-09-27.</ref>

During this time, DPRK deployed the People's Army to major construction sites as well as rural areas for flood recovery and food production, in order to overcome the Arduous March in each region and sector. Notably, they were able to construct important infrastructure such as the Anbyon Youth Power Station at this time, erected by the service personnel of the People's Army in spite of harsh environmental conditions. Rather than yielding to the economic pressures imposed by the U.S. in combination with the environmental disasters and the worldwide economic upheavals, DPRK endured the hardships, defended the socialist system, and built structures of lasting value.<ref>[https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1421&page=2&total=125 <nowiki>"[북현대사] 고난의 행군과 강계정신" ("[North Modern History] Arduous March and Ganggye Spirit")</nowiki>], 한반도정론: 북 바로알기. 통일시대. 2023-02-18. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230927171532/https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1421&page=2&total=125 Archived] 2023-09-27.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/juche-destiny/page/n75/mode/2up "Man's Destiny and Juche Idea."] Foreign Languages Publishing House. Pyongyang, Korea, Juche 101 (2012).</ref><ref name=":14" /> The end of the Arduous March was declared in October 2000.<ref>[https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1544 <nowiki>"[북현대사] 36년 만에 열린 조선로동당 제7차 대회" ("[North Modern History] The 7th Congress of the Workers' Party of Korea held after 36 years").</nowiki>] 한반도정론: 북 바로알기. 통일시대. 2023-05-06. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230928173958/https://www.tongiltimes.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1544 Archived] 2023-09-28.</ref>

===6.15 Declaration and ROK's "Sunshine Policy"===
[[File:President Kim Dae-jung and Chairman Kim Jong-il join hands at Inter-Korean summit.jpg|thumb|[[Republic of Korea|South Korean]] President [[Kim Dae-jung]] and Chairman [[Kim Jong-il]] join hands at the 2000 Inter-Korean summit, which resulted in the 6.15 Inter-Korean Joint Declaration.]]
The South Korean policy towards DPRK from the late 1990s to mid 2000s is known as the "Sunshine Policy" and is primarily associated with the [[Kim Dae-jung]] administration (1998–2003) and the [[Roh Moo-hyun]] administration (2003–2008). During this time, a notable attitude of reconciliation between north and south Korea was expressed by south Korean leadership.

On June 13-15, 2000 leaders of the ROK and DPRK meet for the first time since the war. South Korean president Kim Dae-jung and DPRK leader Kim Jong-il signed an agreement calling for family reunions, economic cooperation, social and cultural exchanges and follow-up governmental contacts between the North and South to ease tensions.<ref name=":2" /> This is known as the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration or the 6.15 Inter-Korean Joint Declaration.

The date "6.15" would subsequently become a popular reference among the Korean reunification movement. Additionally, the phrase ''uri minjok kkiri'' (Hangeul: 우리 민족끼리), which can be translated as "among our nation" or "between our people" can be found in the joint document signed by Kim Dae Jung and Kim Jong Il at the 6.15 talks. The phrase implies the idea of solving the questions of unification and peace on the Korean peninsula without the influence or meddling of outside powers. The numbers "6.15" and the phrase "uri minjok kkiri" can frequently be seen and heard in Korean unification-oriented media, publications, and activism.

===2000s–present===
[[File:Kim-Jiang.jpg|thumb|Kim Jong-il with [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] president, [[Jiang Zemin]] in 2000.]]
In 2002, President Bush's State of the Union address singled out [[Islamic Republic of Iran|Iran]], [[Republic of Iraq|Iraq]] and DPRK as the so-called "[[Axis of Evil]]" for their supposed pursuit of weapons of mass destruction.<ref name=":2" />

According to Nodutdol, in 2018, 3,968 people in the DPRK, who were mostly children under the age of 5, died as a result of shortages and delays to UN aid programs caused by sanctions.<ref name=":3" />

Talks between General secretary [[Kim Jong-un]] and former U.S. [[President of the United states|President]] [[Donald Trump]] began on June of 2019 to discuss disarmament and potential reunification with the [[Republic of Korea]].

In January 2020, South Korean President [[Moon Jae-in]] expressed interest in developing tourism to People's Korea, but the US ambassador Harry Harris blocked this effort. Harris claimed that "independent" tourism plans would have to undergo US consultation. He emphasized that the items inside South Korean tourists' luggage could violate sanctions, demonstrating the extent of US interference in inter-Korean affairs.<ref name=":3" />

[[Yoon Suk Yeol]]'s presidency in the Republic of Korea (2022-present) marks a turn away from rapprochement with the North. Yoon has abandoned Sunshine Policy and strengthened ties with the US, shown most overtly in his April visit to the Pentagon.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Jim Garamone|newspaper=U.S. Department of Defense|title=South Korean President Yoon Visits Pentagon, Discusses Deterrence|date=2023-04-27|url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3377397/south-korean-president-yoon-visits-pentagon-discusses-deterrence/|retrieved=2024-3-3}}</ref> Since 2022, the Republic of Korea has stepped up joint military exercises with the United States,<ref>{{Web citation|author=Hyonhee Shin|newspaper=Reuters|title=Defence chiefs of U.S., S.Korea vow to step up drills to counter North|date=2023-01-31|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/austin-south-korea-yoon-seeks-greater-us-nuclear-assurances-2023-01-30/|retrieved=2024-3-3}}</ref> covertly sent artillery shells to Ukraine (via the United States to avoid official state policy against sending weapons to an active warzone),<ref>{{Web citation|author=Lee Bon-young, Kwon Hyuk-chul|newspaper=Hankyoreh|title=WaPo: Seoul supplied more shells to Ukraine than all of Europe|date=2023-12-06|url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/1119320|retrieved=2024-3-3}}</ref> and suspended a military agreement with the North designed to deescalate tensions.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Jean Mackenzie|newspaper=BBC|title=North Korea spy satellite: South partially suspends military deal after launch|date=2023-11-22|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-67494007|retrieved=2024-3-3}}</ref> In response to the ROK's apparent inseparability from US occupation, the DPRK announced in January that it was ending its long-standing policy of peaceful reunification with the ROK.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Justin McCurry|newspaper=The Guardian|title=Unification with South Korea no longer possible, says Kim Jong-un|date=2024-01-15|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/16/unification-with-south-korea-no-longer-possible-says-kim-jong-un|retrieved=2024-3-3}}</ref> This demonstrates a recognition that a "[[Library:The governance of China/Chapter 10: "One Country, Two Systems"|one country two systems]]" style reunification with the South is no longer possible, as the North would never accept such a reunification if the US military was still allowed to occupy the peninsula. Reunification is only possible with the end of US military occupation and dismantling of the ROK state.

==== Nuclear weapons program ====
The DPRK joined the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] in 1985. It withdrew in 1993 according to the terms of the treaty in order to preserve its sovereignty against U.S. aggression.<ref name=":11022">{{Citation|author=Stephen Gowans|year=2018|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom|chapter=Byungjin|page=208–214|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf|city=Montreal|publisher=Baraka Books|isbn=9781771861427|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

Since the beginning of the DPRK nuclear tests in 2003, the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] and [[Barack Obama|Obama]] regimes respectively lifted some sanctions to facilitate negotiations around DPRK denuclearization, and then reinstated them when the negotiations failed to produce the results desired by the US.<ref name=":3" />

The DPRK detonated its first nuclear bomb on 2006 October 9. The invasions of [[Republic of Iraq|Iraq]] and [[Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]] proved this decision correct when those countries fell to [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] occupation after giving up their nuclear programs.<ref name=":11022" />

==Economy==
The DPRK has maintained one of the most centralized economies in the world since the 1940s. For several decades, it has followed the Soviet pattern of five-year plans with the ultimate goal of achieving self-sufficiency. DPRK is also one of the most sanctioned countries in the world, and has been subject to sanctions since just after its foundation. The economy is heavily nationalized. Food and housing are extensively subsidized by the state, education and healthcare are free, and the payment of taxes was officially abolished in 1974.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Zak Brown|newspaper=Anti-Imperialism.org|title=Towards a concrete analysis of the DPRK|date=2023-11-18|url=https://anti-imperialism.org/2013/11/18/towards-a-concrete-analysis-of-the-dprk/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118135119/https://anti-imperialism.org/2013/11/18/towards-a-concrete-analysis-of-the-dprk/|archive-date=2020-01-18|retrieved=2023-03-12}}</ref> The DPRK follows policy of ''[[Byungjin]]'', meaning it simultaneously develops its nuclear weapons program and the economy.<ref>{{News citation|author=Ankit Panda|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|title=Is North Korea’s ‘Byungjin Line’ on the US-China Strategic Agenda?|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/is-north-koreas-byungjin-line-on-the-us-china-strategic-agenda/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321104122/https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/is-north-koreas-byungjin-line-on-the-us-china-strategic-agenda/|archive-date=2022-03-21|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref>

A 2020 book published in DPRK summarizes the DPRK's economic line of development as follows: "The DPRK has consistently adhered to the line of building an independent national economy in economic construction. In Juche 42 (1953) it put put forward the basic line of socialist economic construction, developing heavy industry preferentially and ensuring the simultaneous development of light industry and agriculture. True to this line, it laid solid material and technological foundations for an independent national economy. In the 1960s when the hostile forces’ moves of aggression became undisguised, the WPK advanced the line of simultaneously carrying on economic construction and building up defences, thus establishing a socialist industrial state while increasing its defence capabilities."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dprk-photobook/page/n53/mode/1up "DPRK Photobook."] Foreign Languages Publishing House, Printing Plant of Foreign Languages Publishing House, October Juche 109 (2020).</ref>

According to DPRK's constitution, the DPRK regards the steady improvement of the material and cultural standards of the people as "the supreme principle of its activities", and holds that the state "shall provide all the working people with every condition for obtaining food, clothing and housing." Furthermore, the constitution states that DPRK's economy relies on socialist relations of production and on the foundation of an independent national economy, with the means of production owned in some cases by the state and in other cases owned collectively by social cooperative organizations. The eventual goal of the DPRK is to "combine the two forms of property in an organic way", and to gradually transform the means of production owned by cooperative organizations into the property of the people as a whole (i.e., into state property), based on the voluntary will of the social cooperative organizations' members. While the means of production are under the ownership of the working class in the form of state property and social cooperative organizations, property that is owned and consumed by individual citizens is also legally protected, including products of individual sideline activities such as products from kitchen gardens and income from other legal economic activities. This type of personal property is protected by the state and guaranteed by law the right for people to inherit it.<ref name=":11">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Socialist_Constitution_of_the_Democratic_People%27s_Republic_of_Korea_(2019) "Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (2019)."] Wikisource. [https://manoa.hawaii.edu/koreanstudies/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/DPRK-Constitution-2019-EN.pdf <nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>] on manoa.hawaii.edu.</ref>

=== Socialist economic management ===
Throughout DPRK's development, systems of socialist economic management and methods of work have been developed, adapted to the country's particular needs. Notable among them is the Taean (or Daean) work system, an industrial management system which grew out of the Chongsanri agricultural management system. Each system has been described by north Korean author and politician [[Kim Byong Sik]] as implementations of the [[mass line]] in production, which were developed in response to DPRK's changing needs as it transitioned away from individualistic, bureaucratic capitalist-style management toward collective socialist-style management in production. As Kim Byong Sik explains, "the Daean work system means, in a word, to embody the mass line in economic control; to get rid of survivals of capitalism in economic management such as bureaucracy, over-centralization and individualism, and to implement the Chongsanri spirit and method, enabling workers to contribute to the maximum in accelerating [[socialist construction]]."<ref name=":9">[[Kim Byong Sik]]. [https://archive.org/details/ModernKoreaKimByongSik/ "Modern Korea: The Socialist North, Revolutionary Perspectives in the South, and Unification."] International Publishers, 1970.</ref>

Each method is named after a location in which it saw early implementation: Chongsanri refers to Chongsanri Cooperative Farm in Kangso county, South Pyongan province, while the Taean work system is named after Taean Electric Machine Factory.<ref name=":9" />

Kim Il Sung noted that in the DPRK's early development, the factory management system "still retained many capitalist elements" despite being socialist. These lingering capitalist elements in management led to bureaucracy, departmentalism, and individualism hampering the activity and initiative of the workers, as well as led to a lack of cooperative spirit between workshops and to insufficient worker participation in management. Quoted in Kim Byong Sik's ''Modern Korea'', Kim Il Sung described the problem as follows: <blockquote>It must be admitted that the old system of factory management, though socialist, still retained many capitalist elements. Bureaucracy, departmentalism, and individualism were found in large measure. Superiors shouted commands at their subordinates in a bureaucratic manner instead of going to help them; a spirit of cooperation between workshops was lacking; and among some people there was a tendency toward individualism of the “You attend to your business, I’ll stick to mine!” variety. Therefore, under the old system of work, it was not possible to give full play to the activity and initiative of workers, people busied themselves for nothing, and no sizable achievements were made in production.<ref name=":9" /> </blockquote>Kim Byong Sik adds that in factories administered exclusively by managers, the lingering capitalist elements were the most concentrated. In such factories, workers lacked interest in whether production was going well or not because they did not have sufficient participation in management. The managers who held sole decision-making powers engaged in arbitrary control, subjective discretion, and other bureaucratic methods, and so the workers felt their job was to "work for eight hours, as assigned, and then go home" which gave little room for stimulating their "political, moral and material interest" in their work or giving full play to their creativity and talent. Therefore it was necessary to bring factory management in line with a socialist management system. In contrast with the lingering capitalist style of management, in the Daean work system, the people cooperate with each other and work units help one another in economic management, with the essential purpose of the Daean work system being to enable people to give maximum play to their revolutionary enthusiasm and creative talent, to increase production, and to control and to manage the economy through promoting comradely accommodation and close cooperation among producers and producing units. Kim Byong Sik also notes that the Daean work system, as a socialist management system, is a prototype of communist economic management, stating "it is clear that economic management in a communist society will take the form of collective management by millions of conscious, communist working people."<ref name=":9" />

=== Special Economic Zones ===
Foreign trade surpassed pre-crisis levels in 2005 and continues to expand. The DPRK has a number of special economic zones (SEZs) and Special Administrative Regions where foreign companies can operate with tax and tariff incentives while DPRK establishments gain access to improved technology.<ref>{{News citation|title=Special Economic Zones in the DPRK|url=https://www.ncnk.org/resources/briefing-papers/all-briefing-papers/special-economic-zones-dprk}}</ref><ref>{{News citation|title=North Korea’s Special Economic Zones: Plans vs. Progress|url=https://www.38north.org/reports/2015/11/nk-sez-plans-vs-progress/}}</ref>

=== Economic sanctions ===
''See also: [[Economic sanctions#Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]''

The US first imposed sanctions on DPRK during the 1950s.<ref name=":2" /> The United States has repeatedly targeted the DPRK with sanctions, citing its nuclear weapons program as their reason.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=[[TeleSur]]|title=US Reps Pass "Harshest Sanctions Ever" Against North Korea|date=2017-10-25|url=https://wp.telesurtv.net/english/news/US-Reps-Pass-Harshest-Sanctions-Ever-Against-North-Korea-20171025-0006.html|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref> Following the country’s 2006 nuclear test, the US, EU, and others added more stringent sanctions, which have periodically intensified since then. In 2017, sanctions imposed by the UN caused thousands of DPRK workers who had been working abroad to be forced to return to DPRK as well as led to the closure of numerous DPRK companies and joint ventures.<ref>[https://www.asianews.it/news-en/North-Korean-workers-leave-China-because-of-UN-sanctions-41942.html “North Korean Workers Leave China because of UN Sanctions.”] Asianews.it. 2017. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220909073331/https://www.asianews.it/news-en/North-Korean-workers-leave-China-because-of-UN-sanctions-41942.html Archived] 2022-09-09.</ref> Sanctions now target oil imports, and cover most finance and trade, and the country’s key minerals sector.<ref>Galant, Michael. [https://cepr.net/cepr-sanctions-watch-may-june-2022/ “CEPR Sanctions Watch, May-June 2022”] Center for Economic and Policy Research. July 8, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220907145545/https://cepr.net/cepr-sanctions-watch-may-june-2022/ Archived] 2022-09-07</ref> However, 49 countries, including [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran|Iran]], and [[Syrian Arab Republic|Syria]] have violated these sanctions and traded with the DPRK anyways.<ref>{{News citation|author=Rishi Iyengar|newspaper=[[CNN]]|title=Report: 49 countries have been busting sanctions on North Korea|date=2017-12-06|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/12/06/news/north-korea-sanctions-countries-violation/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508065837/https://money.cnn.com/2017/12/06/news/north-korea-sanctions-countries-violation/index.html|archive-date=2021-05-08|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref>

According to Foreign Policy in Focus, sanctions on DPRK have "demonstrably failed." FPIF notes that sanctions didn’t deter DPRK from pursuing a nuclear weapons program, nor have they been subsequently responsible for pushing it toward denuclearization, and adds that DPRK has been under sanctions for nearly its entire existence and it doesn’t have a strong international economic presence that can be penalized, and "has been willing to suffer the effects of isolation in order to build what it considers to be a credible deterrence against foreign attack."<ref>Feffer, John. 2021. [https://fpif.org/the-problem-of-sanctions-against-north-korea/ “The Problem of Sanctions against North Korea.”] Foreign Policy in Focus. November 22, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220909072424/https://fpif.org/the-problem-of-sanctions-against-north-korea/ Archived] 2022-09-09. ‌</ref>

==Government==

===Central government===
The highest organ of state power is the [[Supreme People's Assembly]], which is elected for a term of five years. It elects a Speaker and Deputy Speaker to preside over its sessions. While the Supreme People's Assembly is not in session, the Presidium is the highest organ of state power. It consists of a President, Vice-Presidents, and other members.

The Supreme People's Assembly also elects a [[State Affairs Commission]] consisting of a Chairman, multiple Vice-Chairmen, and other members and a Cabinet consisting of a Premier, Vice-Premiers, Chairmen, Ministers, and other members. The Premier organizes the work of the cabinet and is the head of government of the DPRK.<ref name=":6">{{Citation|author=12th Supreme People's Assembly|year=2016|title=Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea|title-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Socialist_Constitution_of_the_Democratic_People%27s_Republic_of_Korea_(2016)|chapter=State Organs}}</ref>

===Local government===
Provinces, cities, and counties elect local people's assemblies for a term of four years. The local people's assembly elects a speaker to preside over its sessions and a local people's committee. Local people's assemblies and committees are subordinate to the Supreme People's Assembly and Cabinet.<ref name=":6" />

== Administrative divisions ==
[[File:Provinces of Korea.png|thumb|333x333px|Provinces of Korea.]]
DPRK is divided into nine provinces, the direct-administered capital city, and three special cities.

The nine provinces (Korean: 도; Hanja: 道) of DPRK are [[Chagang Province|Chagang]], [[North Hamgyong Province|North Hamgyong]], [[South Hamgyong Province|South Hamgyong]], [[North Hwanghae Province|North Hwanghae]], [[South Hwanghae Province|South Hwanghae]], [[Kangwon Province|Kangwon]], [[North Pyongan Province|North Pyongan]], [[South Pyongan Province|South Pyongan]], and [[Ryanggang Province|Ryanggang]].

Pyongyang is designated as the capital city, or the direct-administered city (Korean: 직할시; Hanja: 直轄市) while three other cities, namely [[Rason]], [[Nampo]], [[Kaesong]], are special cities (Korean: 특별시; Hanja: 特別市).

A 2014 demographic survey of DPRK, conducted as a joint project between DPRK's Central Bureau of Statistics and the [[United Nations]] Population Fund, found that the majority of the country's population resides in four contiguous provinces: South Pyongan (17% of population), Pyongyang (14%), South Hamgyong (13%), and North Pyongan (12%). Together, these four contiguous provinces account for over 55% of the country's population. The highest population density area was in the capital city of Pyongyang, while the lowest population density was in Ryanggang. It was also found that more than six out of ten persons reside in urban areas in the country, at 61.2% of the population, while 38.8% of the population lives in rural areas.<ref>Central Bureau of Statistics, Pyongyang and United Nations Population Fund. [https://archive.org/details/2014SDHSReportEFinal "Democratic People's Republic of Korea Socio-Economic, Demographic and Health Survey, 2014."] December, Juche 104 (2015).</ref>

DPRK's method of administrative division is similar to that in south Korea, as both are based on the common system in Korea as a whole, having its roots in the mid-Goryo dynasty in the 11th century.<ref>DPRK Explained. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWmNve0oUkU “DPRK Provinces EXPLAINED - Part One | North Korea’s Provinces.”] YouTube Video.</ref>

As a result of the division of Korea, three provinces, namely Hwanghae, Gyeonggi, and Kangwon, were split due to being on the line of division. The smaller portions of post-division Hwanghae and Gyeonggi provinces were mostly incorporated into nearby provinces, with the larger part of Hwanghae ending up in DPRK and the larger part of Gyeonggi in south Korea. However, Kangwon was divided roughly in half, and as a result, both DPRK and south Korea have a Kangwon province, romanized as Kangwon in DPRK and Gangwon in the south.

==Foreign relations==
Article 17 of the DPRK's constitution states that independence, peace, and friendship are the basic ideals of the foreign relations of the DPRK. Additionally, the constitution holds that the state "shall establish diplomatic as well as political, economic and cultural relations with all friendly countries, on the principles of complete equality, independence, mutual respect, non-interference in each other’s affairs and mutual benefit" and "promote unity with people all over the world who defend their independence, and resolutely support and encourage the struggles of all people who oppose all forms of aggression and interference and fight for their countries’ independence and national and class emancipation."<ref name=":11" />

DPRK does not reject foreign exchange, nor reject foreign knowledge, nor adhere to an [[Isolationism|isolationist]] policy, nor does it aim to promote national [[chauvinism]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Kim Il Sung|title=Collected Works Volume 17|chapter=On Further Developing the Chollima Workteam Movement|page=276|quote=In educating the working people in socialist patriotism, care should be taken to prevent the growth of tendencies to national chauvinism and restorationism. One may be apt to head for chauvinism on the plea of building an independent national economy by one’s own efforts and promoting national pride. If we steer in the direction of chauvinism as Regent Taewongun pursued a policy of national isolation, we will come to reject international exchange and advanced science and technology from other countries and, accordingly, hinder the development of our country.|pdf=https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf}}</ref> Rather, DPRK upholds [[proletarian internationalism]], [[national liberation]], and [[anti-imperialism]], and aims for international exchanges based in mutual respect. Speaking on DPRK's attitude toward international exchange and the study and adoption of foreign knowledge, Kim Il Sung clarifies that it is not DPRK's position to reject foreign things, but rather to adopt them critically and non-[[Dogmatism|dogmatically]], with Korea's sovereignty and particular conditions in mind: "What we are opposing is the [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] attitude of looking down upon our nation, while looking up to foreign countries, as well as the dogmatist attitude of uncritically swallowing up foreign things in disregard of the actual conditions of our country."<ref>Kim Il Sung. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf "On Improving Education in Universities."] April 18, 1963. Collected Works, Volume 17.</ref>

Kim Il-sung has said that completing the Korean revolution is the internationalist duty of the Korean people, and explained that, in the modern conditions where imperialism and borders still exist (as opposed to a stateless, communist future), and in conditions where Korea currently remains divided and antagonized by imperialism, DPRK's socialist patriotism is "indispensable for us who have to drive out the US imperialist aggressors and accomplish the national-liberation revolution", and that "the Korean revolution is the internationalist duty devolving on the Korean people. For this reason, only when the Korean people satisfactorily carry out the Korean revolution as their first priority, will they be performing their internationalist duty faithfully."<ref name=":13">Kim Il Sung. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf "Our People's Army Is an Army of the Working Class, An Army of the Revolution; Class and Political Education Should Be Continuously Strengthened."] February 8, 1963. Kim Il Sung Collected Works, Volume 17. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230403214034/https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf Archived] 2023-04-03.</ref>

Opposing chauvinism and promoting proletarian internationalism, Kim Il-sung has emphasized that care should be taken to prevent the growth of national chauvinism when promoting socialist patriotism, explaining that DPRK should not pursue a chauvinist policy or national isolation, and that Koreans should be educated in the spirit of internationalism "to fight in close unity with many other peoples of the world" against imperialism as well as against both right and left opportunism.<ref>Kim Il Sung. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf "On Strengthening the Work of Factory Party Committees And Further Developing the Chollima Workteam Movement."] Collected Works Volume 17. May 15, 1963. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230403214034/https://www.marxists.org/archive/kim-il-sung/cw/17.pdf Archived] 2023-04-03.</ref> While in the present day, defense of national sovereignty and socialist patriotism holds importance in DPRK, Kim Il-sung notes: "Needless to say, it will be another matter after imperialism is completely overthrown and socialism and communism emerge victorious throughout the world in the future, and the boundaries of nations vanish and states cease to exist."<ref name=":13" />

=== Support for anti-imperialist liberation ===
[[File:DPRK Che Guevara poster.png|thumb|Korean poster of [[Ernesto Guevara|Che Guevara]]]]
The DPRK's revolutionary government has supported other liberation struggles around the world. The support has at times included material support such as providing weapons and military training to various movements, hosting delegations representing various liberation struggles, as well as gestures and expressions of solidarity such as in speeches at the UN General Assembly and support for liberation movements written about in official DPRK publications.

The DPRK trained two thousand guerrilla fighters from twenty-five countries from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s, including members of the [[Japanese Red Army]], [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]], and the [[Official Irish Republican Army]]. The training in these camps lasted from six to eighteen months, and during that time, the DPRK military taught foreign revolutionaries Korean martial arts. The foreign revolutionaries were also put through training such as running through the mountains at night while carrying one hundred pound sandbags.<ref name=":7">[https://apjjf.org/2015/13/12/Benjamin-Young/4303.html “Juche in the United States: The Black Panther Party’s Relations with North Korea, 1969-1971.”] 2015. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230325033325/https://apjjf.org/2015/13/12/Benjamin-Young/4303.html Archived] 2023-03-25. </ref>

DPRK has supported liberation struggles in [[Africa]] both materially and through expressions of solidarity.<ref>[https://libya360.wordpress.com/2017/04/17/president-kim-il-sungs-immortal-contributions-to-african-liberation/ President Kim Il Sung’s Immortal Contributions to African Liberation] APRIL 17, 2017 by Internationalist 360º on libya360.wordpress.com </ref> President Kim Il Sung was a staunch opponent of both [[Republic of South Africa|South African]] and [[Zionism|Zionist]] [[apartheid]].<ref name=":8">[https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1006972472015708160.html <nowiki>“Thread by @Uhusofree: ‘a Quick Thread on the DPRK and African and Diaspora Liberation Movements. I Hope It Reaches Someone Who Didn’t Know Before. President Kim Il […].’”</nowiki>] Threadreaderapp.com. Thread Reader. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230325040407/https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1006972472015708160.html Archived] 2023-03-25.</ref>

When [[Kwame Nkrumah]]'s government in [[Republic of Ghana|Ghana]] was overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1966, Kim Il-sung sent a letter to Nkrumah shortly afterword, stating, "We are especially enraged at the reactionary coup d’état which took place in Ghana at the instigation of the imperialists [...] The imperialists engineer similar plots and perpetrate subversive activities against progressive countries everywhere. We resolutely condemn the machinations of the imperialists against the just cause of the peoples for national liberation, independence and progress. We express our unreserved support to your Excellency’s determination to fight for the freedom of Ghana on your return to Africa."<ref>Nkrumah, Kwame. [https://archive.org/details/san_0975/page/160/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Pyongyang ''Dark Days in Ghana''. "Appendix."] 1968.</ref>

On March 31, 1970, nine members of the Japanese Red Army (JRA) hijacked a Japan Air Lines plane and landed it in Pyongyang. These nine members eventually settled in a housing complex on the outskirts of Pyongyang and the DPRK government used the JRA connection to send money and arms to various Third World-oriented organizations, such as the PLO, the [[Red Army Faction]], and the [[Italian Red Brigades]].<ref name=":7" />

During the 1980s, the DPRK sent free weapons to Cuba.<ref>{{News citation|author=David Iocanangelo|newspaper=Latin Times|title=Fidel Castro Says North Korea Sent Cuba Free Weapons During Cold War|date=2013-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118135109/https://www.latintimes.com/fidel-castro-says-north-korea-sent-cuba-free-weapons-during-cold-war-130279|archive-date=2020-01-18}}</ref>

DPRK Minister of Foreign Affairs Ri Yong Ho's 2017 UN General Assembly statements of solidarity with Cuba, [[Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela|Venezuela]], and [[Syrian Arab Republic|Syria]] and condemning [[State of Israel|Israel]]:<blockquote>My delegation takes this opportunity to extend strong support to and solidarity with the Cuban government and people who are fighting to defend national sovereignty and realize international justice against the high-handedness, arbitrariness and unilateral embargo of the U.S.

We also express strong support to and solidarity with the government and people of Venezuela who are fighting to defend the national sovereignty and the cause of socialism.

The unjust and contemptible acts such as turning a blind eye to the heinous acts of Israel while condemning in every manner only the Syrian government fighting to protect its national sovereignty and security should not be tolerated any longer.

The DPRK government will certainly defend peace and security of the country with its powerful nuclear deterrence and also contribute to safeguarding world peace and security.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The DPRK representative Kim Song at the 2021 UN General Assembly spoke on the DPRK delegation extending "its full support and encouragement to the Cuban government and people who continue to move forward holding aloft the banner of socialism in the face of the U.S. moves to impose illegal sanctions and blockade and to undermine Cuba from within" and expressed "constant support to and solidarity with the independent countries including Syria and [[State of Palestine|Palestine]] and their peoples in their unyielding struggle to defend the national dignity, sovereignty and territorial integrity."<ref name=":1" />

=== Support for Black liberation in the United States ===
[[File:Korean BPP poster.png|thumb|Korean poster of [[Huey P. Newton|Huey Newton]]]]
Kim Il-sung praised the [[Black Panther Party]] (BPP) for their "just struggle to abolish the cursed system of racial discrimination of the US imperialists". The Black Panther Party sent a delegation to the DPRK to meet with President Kim Il Sung and other officials to exchange ideas.<ref name=":8" /> Numerous examples of writings in support of the DPRK and against U.S. imperialism can be found in BPP publications, while many articles in support of the BPP and denouncing U.S. imperialism and systemic racism can be found in DPRK publications.

In addition to specific support of the BPP, it is common to find DPRK publications calling out and denouncing the United States as racist, and voicing support for Black people and other racial minorities of the U.S. in their struggle against it. For example, DPRK state media commented on the shooting of [[Trayvon Martin]], stating: "The U.S. true colors as a kingdom of racial discrimination was fully revealed by last year’s case that the [[Florida]] Court gave a verdict of not guilty to a white policeman who shot to death an innocent Black boy." DPRK has also made commentary on the case of [[George Floyd protests|George Floyd]], emphasizing the hypocrisy for the US to preach about human rights while perpetrating racial oppression against its own citizens. An official from Central Committee stated via the state newspaper [[Rodong Sinmun]]: "Demonstrators enraged by the extreme racists throng even to the White House. This is the reality in the U.S. today" and further stated "American liberalism and democracy put the cap of leftist on the demonstrators and threaten to unleash even dogs for suppression."<ref>[https://www.youngpioneertours.com/dprk-black-civil-rights-movement/ “North Korea and the Black Civil Rights Movement.”] Young Pioneer Tours. December 23, 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221129235716/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/dprk-black-civil-rights-movement/ Archived] 2022-11-29.</ref>

===DPRK-US relations===
The core of US policy toward DPRK has been summarized in a 2008 book from DPRK as follows: "The US attempt to crush the DPRK and realize domination over the whole Korean peninsula constitutes the core of its policy towards the DPRK and the key to its building of a foundation on which to achieve world hegemony."<ref>[https://archive.org/details/terrorismwar/page/n1/mode/1up?view=theater "The United States: 'War Against Terrorism'."] Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, Korea. Juche 97 (2008).</ref>

In a 2021 speech to the United Nations General Assembly, the DPRK's representative Kim Song stated, "In the course of the DPRK-U.S. showdown spanning over half a century, we have been very much accustomed to the U.S. military threats, and we know well how to deal with the U.S., the most hostile country. We have learned the mode of existence to cope with the U.S. hostile policy and accumulated rich experience."<ref name=":1" /> The representative further characterized the DPRK-US relationship in the following way:<blockquote>From the first day of the foundation of the DPRK, the U.S. has not recognized our sovereignty, treating us as an enemy state, and openly showed its hostility towards the socialist system chosen by our people. The U.S. designated the DPRK as a "communist state" and a "state of non-market economy", and it completely blocked, both institutionally and legislatively, the establishment of relations between the DPRK and the U.S. in the fields of politics, economy and trade, under the unreasonable pretexts of "human rights issue", "proliferation of the WMD", "sponsoring of terrorism", "oppression of religion", "money laundering" and etc.

If it is not a hostile policy, should it be called a "friendly policy"?

The U.S. hostile policy against the DPRK finds its clearest expression in its military threats against us. Not a single foreign troop, not a single foreign military base exists in the territory of the DPRK. But in south Korea, almost 30,000 U.S. troops are stationing at numerous military bases, maintaining a war posture to take military action against the DPRK at any moment. The DPRK has no record of having conducted a military exercise even a single time around the U.S., but the U.S. has annually staged all sorts of war drills on and around the Korean peninsula and in the Korean waters for the last several decades, by mobilizing army, naval and air forces across the world including the U.S. troops in south Korea, and it has threatened us through military demonstrations of intimidating nature while deploying numerous armaments to south Korea from time to time.<ref name=":1" /> </blockquote>The representative also noted that the possible outbreak of a new war on the Korean peninsula is contained "not because of the U.S.’s mercy on the DPRK" but because the DPRK "is growing reliable deterrent that can control the hostile forces in their attempts for military invasion".<ref name=":1" />

Kim Yo Jong, First Vice Department Director of Central Committee of Workers’ Party of Korea, in response to being called a “rogue state” by the US Defense Secretary, has been quoted by Nodutdol as saying, "the sufferings imposed upon us by the U.S. have now turned into the hatred for the U.S., and this hatred would drive us to break through the blockade of persistent sanctions led by the U.S. and to live our own way by our own efforts."<ref name=":3" />

The 2018 book ''Origin of the Korean Question'' published in DPRK analyzes the USA's long history of imperialist aggression toward Korea, even prior to the division of the Korean nation into north and south. The book explains: "From the first days of its emergence from the sea of blood of [[American Indians]], the US waged ceaseless wars of conquest with the ambition of territorial expansion. [...] Having accomplished transition from capitalism to imperialism by achieving [[Primitive accumulation of capital|forced initial accumulation of capital]] through aggression and plunder, in the 19th century the US and European powers made their colony of extensive regions in Africa, America, Southeast Asia and on the shores of the Pacific. Not satisfied with it, they plunged into a competition for seizing before anyone else Korea, [[Qing dynasty (1636–1912)|Qing China]] and Japan that had been still outside of any other country's influence. [...] The US, a latecomer in this competition, tried to contain the intervention of other powers in the Far East; its primary efforts in the Far East were directed to Korea." The authors further explain that towards the end of the Second World War, the US began to advocate a "new order of the US-led world," backpedaling on its commitments to the [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] Allied Powers, and that since then, it has openly pursued policy of stamping out socialism on the globe and seeking to achieve world supremacy. The authors note that the Asia-Pacific area has since become the center of global trade and that the US has a "huge economic dependence" on it. Due to the growing influence of Asian economies, the US is "hell bent on winning control over Asia", and has determined that it must dominate the Korean peninsula, a regional strategic point politically, militarily and economically, in order to complete its goal of hegemonic power. For this reason, the US regards it as a major goal to stamp out the DPRK and dominate the Korean peninsula as a whole, setting the DPRK as a major target in the "axis of evil", and "resorting to every means to internationalize the Korean question", treating the issue arbitrarily in international arenas such as the UN, in collaboration with its satellite countries.<ref name=":10">[https://archive.org/details/origin-of-the-korean-question-foreign-languages-publishing-house-pyongyang-juche-107-2018/ "Origin of the Korean Question."] Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, Juche 107 (2018).</ref>

Describing the history of the USA's imperialist designs on Korea, which continues to this day in modern Korea-US relations, the book's authors note that the USA has had its eyes on Korea since the 1800s, due to the importance of Korea's strategic position, the Korean peninsula being good springboard for advance into Asia. Additionally, the authors explain that the USA was compelled toward imperialist expansion by the fact that its industry demanded overseas markets for selling its products, and that the USA saw Korea as a suitable market for its commodities. Finally, Korea was seen as a key location where ships from the USA could refuel on their way to China. Several incidents, such as the criminal intrusion of the USA's ship ''General Sherman'' into the [[Taedong river]] in 1866, which, demanding "trade" and refusing to leave, perpetrated theft, violence, and kidnapping and killing of Koreans until Pyongyang citizens finally were able to set the boat on fire and sink it, was followed by other incidents with USA's naval vessels continuing to intrude into Korean territory as well as conducting illegal gold prospecting in Korea.<ref name=":10" />

Eventually, after a Korea-US treaty was made in 1882, the US won many privileges including the extraterritorial right and "most favoured nation" treatment. Thus the US moved to reduce Korea to its commodity market, a source of precious metals and other raw materials, and an object of capital investment. The US capitalists brought surplus goods like old firearms, petroleum, tobacco and drops to sell them at exorbitant prices, meanwhile purchasing Korea's precious metals including gold and silver at low prices. Over time, [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries promoted pro-US sentiment and sent "bourgeois sycophants" and "traitors to the nation" such as future dictator [[Syngman Rhee]] to the US to study, "at the expense of part of the colossal wealth obtained by bleeding the Korean people white."<ref name=":10" />

By 1905, in a meeting referred to as the [[Taft-Katsura agreement]], the USA's secretary of war and soon-to-be president, [[William Howard Taft]], and Japan's prime minister [[Katsura Taro]] had a confidential discussion in which they expressed their respective views on control over nations in the Pacific, with Japan emphasizing that it had no designs on the [[Republic of the Philippines|Philippines]], and the USA expressing that it would be "logical" for Japan to assert control over Korea. The USA's secretary of war and future president expressed his view that "the establishment by Japan of a [[suzerainty]] over Corea to the extent of requiring that Corea enter into no foreign treaties without the consent of Japan" would directly contribute to "permanent peace" in East Asia.<ref>[https://www.icasinc.org/history/katsura.html "The Taft-Katsura Agreed Memorandum, July 29, 1905."] ICAS Historical Document, Institute for Corean-American Studies. [https://www.icasinc.org/history/katsura.pdf PDF] of document. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230829070912/https://www.icasinc.org/history/katsura.pdf Archived] 2023-08-29.</ref><ref>[https://kls.law.columbia.edu/content/korea-legal-history "Korea: A Legal History: Taft-Katsura Agreed Memorandum."] Korean Legal Studies. Columbia.edu. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230829072908/https://kls.law.columbia.edu/content/korea-legal-history Archived] 2023-08-29.</ref> The authors of ''Origin of the Korean Question'' point out that in the Taft-Katsura Agreement, the US recognized Japan's protection of Korea and, in return, Japan promised not to interfere with the US supremacy over the Philippines. Placing this agreement in the context of the USA's series of aggressions and intrusions into Korea, its imperialistic trade relations, its promotion of pro-US bourgeois ideology through Christian missionaries, and its disregard for agreements made in the 1882 Korea-US treaty, it demonstrates the USA's longstanding record of aggressive, imperialist self-interest in its dealings with Korea as a key country for the US to subjugate on its path to imperialist world hegemony. In line with this history, the authors evaluate that the US of the present day spreads misinformation about the DPRK and misuses the UN and other international apparatuses to "isolate and suffocate the recalcitrant country that aspires after independence [...] to bring the Korean people to their knees by internationalizing the Korean question at all costs in pursuit of its world strategy."<ref name=":10" />

===DPRK-ROK relations===
[[File:Unification vs Peaceful Coexistence 2016-2021.png|thumb|Attitudes in South Korea towards unification vs peaceful coexistence with DPRK, according to the 2021 KINU Unification Survey.<ref name=":5">Dr. Sang Sin Lee, et. al. [https://www.kinu.or.kr/pyxis-api/1/digital-files/87cb5812-a81a-4fdc-824c-8d359544e8f7 "KINU Unification Survey 2021: Executive Summary."] July, 2021. Korea Institute for National Unification.</ref>]]
Among the political leadership, bourgeoisie, and working people of South Korea, there is variation in attitudes toward DPRK. For the majority of South Korea's history, its leaders have been far-right anti-communist military dictators as well as corrupt oligarchs. A handful of ROK presidents are notable for their "Sunshine Policy" stance toward DPRK, a stance of reconciliation. Most notably associated with this attitude are Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun. The more recent president, [[Moon Jae-in]], has been described as having revived certain elements of the Sunshine Policy era. However, his presidency was followed by the right-wing [[Yoon Suk-yeol]] who took office in 2022, and has a much more aggressive pro-US stance.

In regard to public opinion in South Korea, the 2021 KINU Unification Survey<ref name=":5" /> reported that positive responses to the question “If North Korea open the borders to each other and cooperate on political and economic matters, such a state can be considered unification even if the two Koreas are not one country” have reached 63.2%. In addition, the survey found there is a growing tendency to be indifferent to DPRK and to "give up expectations" rather than a negative view for the future of inter-Korean relations. The IMF generation and millennial generations clearly show a high level of indifference toward the DPRK compared to the older generations. (IMF generation 68.3%, Millennial generation 74.1%).

According to the survey, the gap between ‘Prefers unification’ and ‘Prefers peaceful coexistence’ is very huge in the millennial generation. In the 2021 survey, the percentage of ‘Prefers peaceful coexistence’ was 71.4% and the percentage of ‘Prefers unification’ was 12.4%, showing a difference of 59%P. The summary of the results suggests that "the trend that younger generations view North Korea as the subject of coexistence and not unification will become stronger in the future." The younger generation tends to loosely favor confederations. The Millennial generation most actively preferred confederations and has the lowest percentage of preference for unitary state system at only 6.5%. The preference for unification in the unitary state system, which is the traditional unification view, was relatively high among the war generation (17.8%). However, more` than half of the War generation (52.1%) preferred confederations.

67.7% of survey respondents agreed to the statement “The agreements between the two Koreas should be continued regardless of the government's change” and 90.3% of the respondents said ‘necessary’ to the question “Do you think that U.S. Armed Forces in Korea is needed now?” 69% of respondents showed a positive attitude toward the question “Do you think U.S. President [[Joe Biden|Biden]] should hold a summit with North Korean leader Kim Jong-un?” The survey also found that people under 30 are apparently more vulnerable to fake news about DPRK than those over 40. Income level, residence area, political ideology, and party identification also seem to influence the reception of fake news on DPRK and unification issues.<ref name=":5" />

The US consistently interferes in inter-Korean affairs and polices Korean reunification efforts by citing sanctions. According to Nodutdol, only a few months after the Korean leaders signed the Panmunjeom Declaration, the US-led UN Command which oversees the DMZ, blocked development of the inter-Korean railway. In January 2020, South Korean President Moon Jae-In expressed interest in developing tourism to People's Korea, but the US ambassador Harry Harris blocked this effort. Harris claimed that "independent" tourism plans would have to undergo US consultation. He emphasized that the items inside South Korean tourists' luggage could violate sanctions, demonstrating the extent of US interference.<ref name=":3" />

During Moon Jae-in's presidency, a number of inter-Korean activities took place, such as the 2018 inter-Korean summit. In the 2018 Winter Olympics, the teams representing DPRK and south Korea entered the Opening Ceremony marching under the Korean Unification Flag, while in women's ice hockey there was a single united Korean team. A music concert titled "Spring is Coming" was also held in 2018, in which a number of south Korean artists performed alongside People's Korean artists in [[Pyongyang]], DPRK.

Pro-DPRK voices in South Korea are stifled by the existence of the National Security Law. The National Security Law is a south Korean law enforced since 1948 following events such as the [[Jeju Uprising]] where Koreans opposed the division of the country into north and south. The National Security Law has the avowed purpose "to secure the security of the State and the subsistence and freedom of nationals, by regulating any anticipated activities compromising the safety of the State." Behaviors or speeches in favor of the DPRK or communism can be punished by the National Security Law. In an article from The Diplomat, it was referred to as a "Cold War holdover" that "allows the government to selectively prosecute anyone who 'praises, incites or propagates the activities of an anti-government organization'" which the article describes as "a deliberately vague clause that broadly implies the North Korean state and its sympathizers." The article continues, explaining "Under Article 7, individuals have been prosecuted and imprisoned for merely possessing North Korean publications or satirically tweeting North Korean propaganda. In recent years this clause has been harshly criticized by [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]], who claim the government abuses the law to repress dissenting voices."<ref>Meredith Shaw and Joseph Yi. (2022-03-15). [https://thediplomat.com/2022/03/will-yoon-suk-yeol-finally-reform-south-koreas-national-security-law/ "Will Yoon Suk-yeol Finally Reform South Korea’s National Security Law?"] ''The Diplomat''.</ref>

According to the [[People's Democracy Party]] (PDP), a revolutionary workers' party in south Korea, the continued U.S. military occupation of south Korea is the primary barrier to peaceful reunification of the Korean peninsula.<ref>People's Democracy Party and Liberation School. [https://www.liberationschool.org/korean-war-70-years/ “70 Years Too Long: The Struggle to End the Korean War – Liberation School.”] ''Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a New Generation of Fighters'', 25 June 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/2/https://www.liberationschool.org/korean-war-70-years/ Archived]. ‌</ref>

On August 13, 2022, thousands of south Korean unionists and their progressive supporters rallied in downtown Seoul to protest against joint US-south Korea war game exercises. In a video uploaded by [[Press TV]], Oh Eun-Jung of the National Teachers Union was quoted as saying: <blockquote>"The threat of nuclear war is growing on the Korean peninsula, conservative forces of Yoon Suk-yeol in south Korea and those in the U.S. are frantically conducting aggressive war drills in the sky, the land, and the sea, and are about to start large-scale military exercises, aimed at the invasion of North Korea. We must stamp out this behavior of anti-reunification forces." </blockquote>In the same video, construction worker Lee Seung-Woo stated: <blockquote>"We not only oppose the war exercises, but we want the U.S. Forces Korea, which is actually controlling and interfering with the Korean peninsula to leave this land. We believe that only then will the eighty million Koreans from both north and south be able to live peacefully."<ref>Frank Smith. [https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2022/08/13/687322/South-Korean-unionists-protest-US-South-Korea-war-games “‘South Korean Unionists Protest US-South Korea War Games.’”] PressTV News. August 13, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220826124551/https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2022/08/13/687322/South-Korean-unionists-protest-US-South-Korea-war-games Archived] 2022-08-28.</ref></blockquote>[[File:Unconverted long-term prisoners in south Korea.jpg|alt=People stand in a row at a demonstration calling for a second repatriation of unconverted long-term prisoners in south Korea. Their Korean-language sign reads "비전향장기수 송환 촉구". (Meaning "Call for repatriation of non-converted long-term prisoners")|thumb|A demonstration calling for a repatriation to DPRK for unconverted long-term prisoners in south Korea.]]

====Unconverted long-term prisoners====
{{Main article|Unconverted long-term prisoners}}

Unconverted long-term prisoners is a term which refers to political prisoners who have been imprisoned in south Korea, generally on charges of "anti-state" activities or views in support of communism or DPRK. The term commonly refers to people who were mostly arrested from the 1950s to 1980s and imprisoned and tortured for decades and who refused to sign a "conversion" statement renouncing communist or left-wing ideology, which had been a condition for their release. It can also refer to those who ultimately did sign the so-called "conversion" statement but do not consider it a true conversion as it was extracted under torture.<ref name=":4">[https://www.liberationschool.org/interview-with-ahn-hak-sop/ "Still fighting for Korea’s liberation: An interview with Ahn Hak-sop"] ''Liberation School'', June 27, 2023. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240227201454/https://www.liberationschool.org/interview-with-ahn-hak-sop/ Archived] 2024-02-27.</ref><ref name=":16">Kim Dong-won. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xu2mEvU29Q ''Repatriation'' (2003).] Documentary.</ref>

In the 1990s, some of the elderly prisoners began being released, and began living in the south under difficult economic, legal, and social conditions. Many sought to be repatriated to DPRK, and 63 of them were allowed to do so in the year 2000. Many who participated in the repatriation in 2000 and many of those who remained in south Korea made their decisions based on their impression at the time that there was going to be more freedom of movement between ROK and DPRK thereafter. However, further repatriations have not taken place, despite a continued movement calling for it. Meanwhile, those who remained in the south have had to live under strict surveillance by the south Korean state.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":16" />

==Further reading==

*[[Library:DPRK Study Guide|DPRK study guide]]
*[[:Category:Library works about the DPRK|All library works about the DPRK]]
*[[:Category:Library documents from the DPRK|All library works from the DPRK]]

==External links==

*http://www.korean-books.com.kp/en/

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
[[Category:Targets of regime change operations]]
[[Category:Targets of bourgeois media]]
[[Category:Marxist-Leninist states]]
[[Category:Asian countries]]
[[Category:Countries invaded by the United States]]
[[Category:Countries sanctioned by the US]]
[[Category:Juche]]

LGBT rights and issues in AES countries

2025-06-09T15:51:09Z

37.19.213.10:

<blockquote>'''''Note:''' This article is about [[LGBT+|lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender]] rights in [[Actually Existing Socialism|current socialist]] countries. Due to the widespread use of the term LGBT in the Anglosphere, this article has primarily been written using this term and its variants. However, the U.S.-originated term LGBT in this article should be regarded as provisional, as the countries discussed in the article do not themselves originate in U.S. culture and their own local conceptions and histories of gender and sexuality must be considered.''</blockquote>[[File:LGBT rights demonstrators in Vietnam thank the National Assembly.png|thumb|LGBT rights demonstrators in [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]] thank the National Assembly following the approval of a bill for legal gender change in 2015.<ref>[https://kenh14.vn/xa-hoi/ngay-hop-phap-hoa-chuyen-gioi-ban-tre-ra-duong-voi-bang-chu-cam-on-quoc-hoi-20151124112259576.chn "Ngày hợp pháp hóa chuyển giới: Bạn trẻ ra đường với bảng chữ "Cảm ơn Quốc hội""] (Transgender legalization day: Young people take to the streets with the sign "Thank you to the National Assembly") 25-11-2015. Kenh 14 VN.</ref>|362x362px]]
The nature and status of [[LGBT+]] rights in current and former [[Actually Existing Socialism|actually existing socialist]] (AES) countries is a common subject of inquiry and debate throughout the political sphere, chiefly among LGBT [[Communism|communists]] looking for truth and answers regarding the actual rights enjoyed and issues faced by LGBT people under AES, among reactionary and anti-communist individuals and organizations seeking to utilize or misconstrue LGBT rights violations and policy failures under AES as a way to discredit and undermine AES countries, and by communists with anti-LGBT lines seeking precedent to uphold their anti-LGBT stances. Given these intersecting desires and aims, and in some cases, concerted [[reactionary]] and/or [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] propaganda campaigns, as well as the co-optation and weaponization of LGBT struggle by [[Liberalism|liberal]], [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]], and [[Imperialism|imperialist]] organizations for destabilization of AES countries through [[color revolution]], the subject of LGBT rights in AES countries is often surrounded with difficulty and controversy.

Distinguishing between real problems faced by LGBT communities under AES, vs. anti-communist propaganda that seeks to use LGBT rights as a cover or vehicle for spreading misinformation and [[atrocity propaganda]] about AES countries, is a persistent issue in the discourse around this subject.

It should be noted that many issues faced by LGBT communities in AES countries are not issues found uniquely under socialism, but may be faced by LGBT individuals and communities under various modes of production, including in capitalist societies, and a dialectical materialist analysis must be maintained to understand the development of LGBT rights worldwide. Always keep in mind the [[Historical materialism|historical materialist]] attitude: collective discrimination of the LGBT community existed before [[Capitalism|capitalist society]] and will persist in a different form after those societies have been replaced by [[Socialism|socialist societies]]. Due to capitalist society's incessant need to [[Commodification|commodify]] and thereby further [[Exploitation|exploit]] working people, LGBT communities are commonly used as a source of new commodities to counter the [[tendency of the rate of profit to fall]] as well to confuse the working class via the [[divide and conquer]] strategies of the bourgeoise in modern [[class struggle]].

== Background information, context, and terminology ==

=== Use and meaning of LGBT terminology ===
<blockquote>''See also: [[LGBT+]]''</blockquote>LGBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s and originating in the United States, the initialism, as well as some of its common variants, functions as an umbrella term for sexuality and gender identity and has since come into international and cross-linguistic usage.

Despite the fact that the four-letter LGBT initialism does not explicitly encompass all individuals in smaller communities, the term is generally accepted to implicitly include those not specifically identified in the four-letter initialism.

Sukrita Lahiri, writing on the issue of terminology in international politics, says of the term "LGBT":<blockquote>LGBT remains the most commonly used umbrella term in the global framework of gender and sexuality, even though it has its reductionist problems as it leaves out a host of identities like intersex, queer, and questioning.<ref name=":11">{{Citation|author=Sukrita Lahiri|year=2020|title=Anti-Pinkwashing as Emerging Hope: Queering the Palestinian Liberation Movement in the Context of Institutionalised Neoliberalism|title-url=https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.13169/intecritdivestud.3.2.0053|publisher=International Journal of Critical Diversity Studies, Pluto Journals.}}</ref></blockquote>

===== Other terminology for gender and sexual minorities =====
Another commonly used term is gender and sexual minorities, under the initials GSM. Finally, another common term is the word queer, which is often used as another umbrella term for LGBT people, or gender and sexual minorities. Many people self-identify with this term, but others regard this term to be offensive and prefer not to use it. Sukrita Lahiri says of the term "queer" that it "opens up innumerable possibilities" due to the term being "intrinsically one that challenges any form of determinism" however, it "only exists in the English language and therefore it is important to be critical of the use."<ref name=":11" /> However, the term "queer" has been at least partially borrowed into some other languages.

These various terms are not universally agreed to or used by everyone that they attempt to encompass, and differences in usage may be found throughout various times in history, various communities, or in various contexts. In addition, local terminology in various countries and languages describing their own local sociocultural conceptions of gender and sexual minorities may be more commonly or more suitably used in a given location or context.

On the issue of translating topics regarding sexuality, Sukrita Lahiri writes:<blockquote>The politics of sexuality is thoroughly altered in the process of translation [...] translating sexualities in international politics pushes one to confront notions of emancipation–colonisation, sovereignty–interference, among which global narratives are locally welcomed or repelled.<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>

=== Real problems faced by LGBT communities under AES vs. anti-communist misinformation ===
Real problems facing the LGBT communities of AES countries coexist alongside anti-communist propaganda designed to malign these countries or incite color revolution in them, making the topic difficult to analyze, as reliable sources may be hard to come by, not only due to LGBT rights being a minority issue that often receives limited coverage, but also to the rampant intentional spread of misinformation on the subject.

In attempting to navigate through ever-present misinformation regarding AES countries, the actual problems faced by LGBT communities in AES countries, currently or historically, may at times be hard to accurately assess. Additionally, many problems faced by LGBT communities in AES countries are not problems found uniquely under socialism, but may be faced by LGBT individuals and communities under various modes of production, including in capitalist societies.

=== Rainbow capitalism, rainbow imperialism, and pinkwashing ===
[[Rainbow capitalism]] (sometimes called pink capitalism) refers to the involvement of capitalism and consumerism in the LGBT movement and the co-optation and weaponization of the LGBT movement by capitalist interests. Rainbow imperialism (or pink imperialism) refers to the whitewashing (also called ''pinkwashing'', see below) of imperialism through the promotion of so-called "LGBT-friendly" imperialist interests and organizations, such as promotion of LGBT inclusivity into the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref>{{Web citation|author=Thom Waite|newspaper=Dazed|title=The CIA’s latest ‘woke washing’ recruitment ad stars a gay agency librarian|date=2021-05-12|url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/52759/1/the-cia-latest-woke-washing-recruitment-ad-stars-a-gay-agency-librarian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229162030/https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/52759/1/the-cia-latest-woke-washing-recruitment-ad-stars-a-gay-agency-librarian|archive-date=2022-12-29|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref>

Another related term is "pinkwashing" (similar to terms like whitewashing and [[greenwashing]]). Pinkwashing is the strategy of promoting LGBT rights protections as evidence of liberalism and democracy, especially to distract from or legitimize violence against other countries or communities. Pinkwashing is a continuation of the political rationale used to justify [[colonialism]] on the basis of LGBT rights.

In 2011, Sarah Schulman used the term ''pinkwashing'' in a widely read editorial in [[The New York Times|''The New York Times'']] citing [[State of Israel|Israel]] as an example of the use of the tactic of pinkwashing in public relations. Schulman states that after "generations of sacrifice and organization, gay people in parts of the world have won protection from discrimination and relationship recognition. But these changes have given rise to a nefarious phenomenon: the co-opting of white gay people by anti-immigrant and anti-[[Islam|Muslim]] political forces in Western Europe and Israel." Schulman says that an opportunistically selective depiction of usually Arab, South Asian, Turkish or African Muslim immigrants as "homophobic fanatics" is strategically contrasted against the "relevant and modern" marketing image of Israel, harnessing the gay community to reposition Israel's global image, summarizing the situation by saying that the "growing global gay movement against the Israeli occupation has named these tactics 'pinkwashing': a deliberate strategy to conceal the continuing violations of [[State of Palestine|Palestinians]]' human rights behind an image of modernity signified by Israeli gay life."<ref>{{News citation|author=By Sarah Schulman|newspaper=The New York Times|title=Israel and ‘Pinkwashing’|date=Nov. 22, 2011|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/23/opinion/pinkwashing-and-israels-use-of-gays-as-a-messaging-tool.html|quote=After generations of sacrifice and organization, gay people in parts of the world have won protection from discrimination and relationship recognition. But these changes have given rise to a nefarious phenomenon: the co-opting of white gay people by anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim political forces in Western Europe and Israel.}}</ref>

In ''Anti-Pinkwashing as Emerging Hope,'' Sukrita Lahiri writes of the relationship between pinkwashing and imperial violence:<blockquote>Historically speaking, [[settler colonialism]] has a long history of articulating its violence through the protection of certain figures such as women and children (Moghadam, 1994), and now homosexuals. Pinkwashing is just one more justification for imperial violence within this long tradition which works in part by tapping into the discursive and structural circuits produced by the West against the danger of “Islamic extremism.” In persistence of this imperial tradition, Gayatri Spivak’s (2010) well-known precept “white men saving brown women from brown men” (p. 57) gets modified with the trope of white homosexuals saving brown homosexuals from brown heterosexuals (Morris, 2010). Further, the neoliberal economic structure comfortably stretches itself to induce a compartmentalised sort of marketing of various ethnic and minoritised groups (Fraser, 2013). Thus it normalises the production of, for example, a gay and lesbian tourism industry built on the distinction between “gay-friendly” and homophobic destinations. The human rights groups voicing homosexual concerns continue to proliferate Western constructs of identity that privilege identity politics, “coming out”, increased visibility, and legislative measures as the dominant scales of social inclusion and progress.<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>

=== Destabilization of AES countries via imperialist-backed NGOs ===
Closely related to the issues of rainbow imperialism and rainbow capitalism is the practice of capitalist and imperialist powers of using a guise of "LGBT rights" to engage in foreign meddling or to manufacture atrocity propaganda to undermine the sovereignty of AES or anti-imperialist countries.

The existence of such developments and co-optations in liberal LGBT movements and capitalist and imperialist societies can lead to or inflame preexisting anti-LGBT sentiment in countries targeted by these tactics, or cause people to see LGBT movements as unwelcome foreign or bourgeois elements. This in turn can lead to persecution or suspicion of the local LGBT community. Local, grassroots, genuine proletarian LGBT movements and communities may exist alongside opportunistic meddling by imperialists and become subject to co-optation, leading to confusion and tensions around the issue.

A group called [[NonLa Collective]], a digital front of Vietnamese communists, spoke on this issue by saying:<blockquote>Ultimately, it’s true that our society has many problems when it comes to LGBTQ+ issues. It’s also true that the Vietnamese revolutionary government can and should do more, and more quickly, to address the needs and concerns of LGBTQ+ citizens. But, speaking as LGBTQ+ Vietnamese ourselves, we do not feel as if we need to be “rescued” by foreign-imperialist organizations like USAID, nor do we see how dismantling our revolutionary government would ''help'' our LGBTQ+ movement in any way. Vietnam has our own vibrant, strong, and growing LGBTQ+ liberation movement. In Ho Chi Minh City alone, in 2019, thousands of people showed up to the most recent pride event before COVID-19 broke out, and activism continues even through the pandemic. The government does not restrict or limit our voices in any way, on the contrary, LGBTQ+ stories are shared positively on state media [...] Again, we ask, how would immediately dismantling our revolutionary government help LGBTQ+ people in any way?<ref name=":27" /></blockquote>

A criticism of such tactics is put forth by Yi Zhi in a Global Times article titled "Politicizing LGBTQI issues in China could backfire on West":<blockquote>The truth is, those [Western] media outlets know very well what the issue is all about. They do not really care about the group, but rather treat it as a tool to infiltrate China, pushing their values like the so-called human rights in China. Some foreign political forces have been playing tricks over issues like feminism, AIDS, animal protection, and so on. LGBTQI has become their latest contrivance.

Controversies over the above-mentioned topics do exist and there is room for improvement in China. But what the foreign forces have been doing is cultivating their own version of the so-called civil society in China.

[...] As long as the foreign forces which support LGBTQI groups in China respect China's sovereignty and the rule of law, China will surely have their back. There will be no problem as long as the foreign forces which support LGBTQI groups in China respect China's sovereignty and the rule of law. Unfortunately, those foreign forces often have ulterior motives. Imagine if the LGBTQI groups in the West are supported by other forces which aim at overthrowing the capitalist system, will the countries turn a blind eye to them? [...] [The West] should be careful not to habitually politicize social issues, cozying up to certain groups too much and intensifying contradictions. Otherwise, they will only cause greater social injustice, triggering fierce counterattacks by right-wing populists.<ref>Yi Zhi. Dec 02, 2021."Politicizing LGBTQI issues in China could backfire on West." Global Times. URL: https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202112/1240533.shtml</ref></blockquote>According to an article entitled "West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security" appearing in People's Daily, "Experts on international intelligence and security said under the intensifying China-US competition, foreign hostile forces have increased efforts to target the political security of China rather than merely conducting regular espionage activities. [...] Apart from targeting Xinjiang and Hong Kong which are traditional geopolitical hotspots, foreign hostile forces are also keen to use issues like LGBT, feminism and environmentalism which are easy to stir heated discussions on social media via disinformation and rumors to create problems by instigating conflicts between specific groups in China" and continues by saying, "Fortunately, this kind of practice is unable to cause a significant impact or escalate into a massive color revolution, since with the modernization and development of China, the majority of Chinese netizens are able to discuss these issues with a mature and reasonable attitude, and legal civil organizations on LGBT or environment protection will distance themselves from hostile foreign intervention."<ref name=":0">''West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security - People’s Daily Online''. People’s Daily. April 16, 2021. URL: <nowiki>http://en.people.cn/n3/2021/0416/c90000-9840004.html</nowiki></ref>

In the text ''Understanding Korea No. 9: Human Rights'', a book discussing The [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|DPRK's]] views on human rights, the following commentary is provided on the U.S. and Western use of "human rights" as a tool for suppression of DPRK and other countries: <blockquote>At present, in many cases the US and the Western countries abuse the international human rights instruments as a means to justify their suppression of the rights of their people, and their invasion, intervention and human rights violations against other countries and nations. [...] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights had been abused as a tool for imposing political pressure and interfering in the internal affairs of the progressive and developing countries by the US and other Western countries after the Cold War, which attempted to pick a quarrel with the human rights situations in these countries and impose their own “human rights standards” on them.<ref name=":24">{{Citation|author=Kim Ji Ho|year=2017|title=Understanding Korea 9: Human Rights|city=Pyongyang|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House}}</ref></blockquote>The work further clarifies:<blockquote>The US and its followers conduct the anti-DPRK human rights campaign with an intention to mislead the public opinion and raise the non-existent “human rights issue” in the DPRK as an international issue, thus defaming the prestige of the DPRK in the international arena and toppling its socialist system under the veil of “defending human rights.” As it has learned that military threats are helpless in bringing down the socialist system of the DPRK, the US is trying to internationalize the anti-DPRK human rights campaign by instigating its followers. The smear campaign conducted by the US is, in nature, an acme of high-handedness and arbitrariness aimed at ignoring the political mode and social system established in the DPRK and changing them at any cost. It is also a brigandish act of destroying the very foundation of international human rights mechanisms.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>In the work, the hostile U.S. policy of using human rights as a destabilization tool is described as a major obstacle to human rights in DPRK:<blockquote>The major obstacles to the protection and promotion of human rights in the DPRK are the hostile policy pursued by the United States and other Western countries against the DPRK and their “human rights” racket. In other words, they are their moves to stamp out the country politically, blackmail it militarily and isolate and stifle it economically. [...] Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect. Thanks to the steadfast people-oriented policies advanced by the government and its continued efforts to perfect the human rights instruments, human rights will be guaranteed on a higher plane in the DPRK.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>Such articles as those cited above illustrate one of the main causes of rejection or suspicion of certain elements of Western-influenced or Western-led LGBT rights movements in AES countries.

=== Anti-LGBT sentiments among communists ===
Along with pro-LGBT positions among communists, anti-LGBT positions among communists and communist organizations are a reality. In past and present AES, both pro- and anti-LGBT positions and policies can be found. Anti-LGBT positions among communists often stem from a perceived association of LGBT movements with "bourgeois decadence" or "degeneracy", or with extreme individualism. Other anti-LGBT positions among communists may be traced to their opposition to the usage of "rainbow imperialism" to undermine and attack AES countries and communist movements, or infiltrate them with liberal-bourgeois LGBT rights organizations.

The 1975 Marxist-Leninist work, "Toward A Scientific Analysis of the Gay Question" composed by the Los Angeles Research Group,<ref name=":1">Los Angeles Research Group. "Toward A Scientific Analysis of the Gay Question." 1975. URL: https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-8/gay-question/index.htm</ref> a group of gay communist women, seeks to provide dialectical materialist explanations and criticisms of a variety of anti-LGBT positions and lines put forth by U.S. communist organizations of the time. As the term "LGBT" itself originates in the U.S., and U.S. imperialists use of "rainbow capitalism" and "rainbow imperialism" as tools against AES countries are among the main reasons for anti-LGBT sentiments among some communists, an understanding of the contradictions within the U.S. LGBT movement is relevant to understanding international LGBT struggle.

Regarding the origin of bourgeois, [[Opportunism|opportunist]], and [[Reformism|reformist]] currents arising as contradictions in the U.S. LGBT movement, the Los Angeles Research Group writes:<blockquote>The gay movement operated in the same context as [...] other progressive struggles. Chief among the contradictions within the gay movement, as in other groups, was the predominance of petty-bourgeois elements. The communist forces in the gay movement were also small in number and still primitive, and got very little support for their work from other communists. Many gay communists saw anti-war work and the working class movement as more important; gay women communists saw the women’s movement as a higher priority than the gay movement. As a practical result, the gay movement was abandoned by communists to the leadership of the petty-bourgeoisie to where it is now dominated, on the one hand, by a few opportunists and reformists, [...] who are bought off by government and foundation grants. [...] The fact that anti-gay communists take the most conspicuous gay people for the whole points again to their one-sided, superficial and subjective approach.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Among the conclusions of the Los Angeles Group is the following assertion: "The contradiction between homosexuals and heterosexuals is non-antagonistic; it can be worked out through principled struggle. Communists, gays and heterosexuals alike, must unite with the progressive aspects raised by the gay movement and struggle against those bourgeois elements which exist." The work continues:<blockquote>Just as men, women, heterosexuals, gays and minorities cross all class lines, any organization of these groups will reflect one or another class line at any given historical period depending on the strength and development of the different class forces. Gays are not inherently revolutionary (as some gay groups would say), nor inherently reactionary (as some “communist” groups would say). The class nature of gay liberation will change only when it is given revolutionary working class leadership. Until then, like all other groups, bourgeois ideology will fill the political vacuum. Even the working class, left to itself, can only develop trade union consciousness, which in the last analysis is bourgeois. To expect the gay movement to be any different when left without proletarian leadership is pure idealism. Gay people, particularly working class gays, are perfectly capable of enthusiastically grasping the science of Marxism Leninism and of being disciplined revolutionary fighters. To make enemies of potential allies is to abandon the working class and its interests.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>

=== Existence of non-heterosexual and gender-variant identities and practices in societies worldwide ===
It must be remembered that the LGBT movement that arose in the modern West is only one manifestation of a worldwide phenomenon of non-heterosexual and gender-variant identities and practices throughout history. As the majority of current and former AES countries exist outside of the West, or only on its periphery, an understanding of the local histories and conceptions of each country's own gender and sexual minorities must be investigated for a dialectical materialist understanding of their situations to be formed. As all of the AES countries have also existed in a time where the Western LGBT movement was already forming and developing, an understanding of that movement and its contradictions in conjunction with local movements and traditions would be necessary to form a nuanced understanding of the nature of gender and sexual minority cultures, histories, rights, and issues unique to each country.
On the topic of pre-modern transgender identities and spiritual traditions in Asia and the Pacific and their relationship to contemporary LGBT identities, Pauline Park writes:<blockquote>There is a very wide misconception that ‘lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender’ (LGBT) constitutes a purely modern phenomenon created by late nineteenth and early twentieth century sexologists and activists. In fact, every pre-modern Asian and Pacific Islander society had what could be termed ‘proto-transgenderal’ and homoerotic traditions which anticipate these contemporary LGBT identities, even if there are significant differences between the pre-modern and the contemporary identity formations. [...] In examining the entire history of homoerotic and proto-transgenderal traditions in pre-modern Asian and Pacific Islander societies, we must not make the mistake of romanticizing such traditions or failing to recognize the significant differences between ‘them’ and ‘us’ — meaning contemporary queer LGBT/queer APIs [Asian and Pacific Islanders], especially those of us in the diaspora. Those ancient traditions are embedded in societies which were not characterized by equality of age, gender or class relations, and many of the forms that homoeroticism and transgenderal identity took would offend our egalitarian sensibilities.<ref name=":10">{{News citation|author=Pauline Park|title=Transgender Identities & Spiritual Traditions in Asia & the Pacific: Lessons for LGBT/Queer APIs (Pacific School of Religion, 4.2.13)|date=03-31-2013|url=https://paulinepark.com/2013/03/31/transgender-identities-spiritual-traditions-in-asia-the-pacific-lessons-for-lgbtqueer-apis-pacific-school-of-religion-4-2-13/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801085500/https://paulinepark.com/2013/03/31/transgender-identities-spiritual-traditions-in-asia-the-pacific-lessons-for-lgbtqueer-apis-pacific-school-of-religion-4-2-13/}}</ref></blockquote>Park continues by saying that the examination of such pre-modern "proto-transgenderal" and homoerotic figures and images can have implications for political action "by challenging and disarming the false discourse of reactionary elements in the Asia/Pacific region today and in API immigrant communities that attempt to label LGBT identities as false and foreign, the fabrication of white, Western and even specifically American influence."<ref name=":10" />[[File:Colonial and imperial spheres of influence in Asia.jpg|thumb|A map depicting colonial and imperial spheres of influence in Asia from 1850-1914.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Facing History|title=Western Imperialism in East Asia|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-nanjing-atrocities/western-imperialism-east-asia}}</ref>]]

=== Influence of colonialism, religion, and local tradition in views and practices of gender and sexuality ===
In addition to local and indigenous views and practices that may be found in various societies in the world, [[colonialism]] also has left a cultural impact on many societies in regard to their views on gender and sexuality. For example, in some regions, concepts of gender or sexuality may have been more or less broad, fluid, or permissive than what was introduced or imposed on those societies through colonialism. Colonialism may also impose new religious doctrines on populations, or introduce concepts that become blended with traditional, local concepts.

==== Western colonialism ====
In particular, the current AES countries have been impacted in varying ways by Western colonialism, which typically brought [[Christianity|Christian]] religious values and imposed European laws, social norms, and standards onto the issues of gender and sexuality in the countries they colonized. Depending on a variety of factors, such as the pre-existing local attitudes about gender and sexuality in a given location, the particular Western power(s) that held the most colonial influence in a region, the time period of the colonization, etc., the resulting effect on the social fabric of each society will have its own characteristics that must be uniquely considered for a proper dialectical materialist analysis.

In the AES [[Republic of Cuba]], there is a majority Christian population, primarily [[Catholicism|Catholic]]. Cuba also has a significant population practicing [[Santería]], an African diasporic religion that arose through a process of syncretism between the traditional Yoruba religion of West Africa, the Roman Catholic form of Christianity, and Spiritism. The religious situation of Cuba is illustrative of the complex overlapping cultural currents that exist in colonized nations, such as the displacement, destruction, or transformation of indigenous culture, the imposition of the colonizer's culture, and the effects of the [[Slavery|slave trade]]. The complexity of this historical and cultural situation must be considered when analyzing the history and modern status of LGBT population in Cuba.

==== East Asian cultural sphere ====
The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, encompasses multiple countries in East and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Chinese culture. The current AES countries who have historically been part of this cultural sphere of influence are the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], and the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. Imperial China was a regional power and exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, among which were Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in [[Confucianism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]]. In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Confucianism and Buddhism remain in various forms in these countries.

An ILGA Asia report from 2021 states that Confucian culture "strongly supports heterosexual and traditional family models of straight men and women."<ref name=":14">N.A. [https://static1.squarespace.com/static/526c21b5e4b0d43e45f6c4c2/t/60cc1b25ff2943704dad091e/1623989084760/Country%2BReport_Vietnam%2B%281%29-compressed.pdf Dare to Dream: The Ongoing Voyage from Invisibility to Community Empowerment, and Foray into the Region for LGBTIQ in Vietnam]. ILGA Asia, 2021.</ref> According to a study on the influence of Confucianism on modern (hetero-)sexual relationships among youths in China and Vietnam, "Traditional Confucian culture, the common base of social culture in the mainland of China, Taiwan and Vietnam, is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought with regard to individual’s relationships with others and appropriate conduct." The study found that "different aspects of Confucian culture eroded unevenly and might have different association with adolescent and youth's sexual behaviors in Hanoi, Shanghai, and Taipei undergoing rapid socio-economic change."<ref>Gao E, Zuo X, Wang L, Lou C, Cheng Y, Zabin LS. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4235616/ How does traditional Confucian culture influence adolescents' sexual behavior in three Asian cities?] J Adolesc Health. 2012 Mar;50(3 Suppl):S12-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.002. PMID: 22340851; PMCID: PMC4235616.</ref>

According to City Pass Guide, sexual orientation and gender identity throughout Asia "is a complex terrain from which cultural values, family intradependence, religion, and the tumultuous legacy of colonialism grow and intertwine. As a result, LGBTQ rights vary widely in this part of the world."<ref name=":9">{{News citation|author=John Mark Harrell|newspaper=City Pass Guide|title=PRIDE AND PROMISE FOR VIETNAM’S LGBTQI+ COMMUNITY|url=https://www.citypassguide.com/blog/pride-and-promise-for-vietnams-lgbtqi-community}}</ref>

== LGBT rights in current AES countries ==
The five current AES states are China, Cuba, DPRK, Laos, and Vietnam. As is clarified in the previous sections of this article, each of these countries comes with their own unique histories, experiences with colonization, and their own traditional and modern cultures which all affect their outlook and present status in regard to LGBT rights. Same-sex relations are not illegal in any AES state, nor do any of them criminalize forms of gender expression such as "imitating the opposite sex" in their constitutions.<ref>[https://internap.hrw.org/features/features/lgbt_laws/ “#OUTLAWED: ‘the Love That Dare Not Speak Its Name.’”] [[Human Rights Watch]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220922151200/http://internap.hrw.org/features/features/lgbt_laws/ Archived] 2022-09-30. Accessed 2022-09-30.</ref>

In China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam, there are LGBT advocacy organizations that are working within their countries' legal systems to expand protections of LGBT individuals, increase the quality of healthcare for the LGBT community, and spread increased awareness in society, in a similar fashion to LGBT advocacy groups anywhere else in the world. Individuals from DPRK and individuals who have visited there have stated that LGBT issues are not highly well-known in DPRK, but that LGBT people are not legally persecuted.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":25" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":32" /> In a 2017 work regarding human rights in general in DPRK, Kim Ji Ho writes that "Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect" and explains that DPRK focuses on economic development in order to improve and secure human rights.<ref name=":242">{{Citation|author=Kim Ji Ho|year=2017|title=Understanding Korea 9: Human Rights|city=Pyongyang|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House}}</ref>

A 2020 report from China observed that tolerance towards the LGBT community was positively associated with economic growth, and that "a higher level of economic development in provinces was associated with a decrease in discrimination" against LGBT individuals, stating that "every 100 thousand RMB increase in per capita GDP lead to a 6.4% decrease in discriminatory events perpetrated by heterosexuals." The authors observed that reductions in LGBT discrimination and development of the economy are "closely linked" and can be regarded as "harmonious processes."<ref name=":21" />

Currently, Cuba offers the most expansive and explicit legal protections for LGBT rights among the AES countries. Cuba's 2022 amendments to the [[Family Code]] of its constitution offers a high degree of explicit legal protections for LGBT persons and non-traditional family structures. The code guarantees the right of all people to form a family without discrimination, legalizing same sex marriage and allowing same sex couples to adopt children.<ref>[https://peoplesdispatch.org/2022/09/26/cubans-just-ratified-the-worlds-most-progressive-family-code/ “Cubans Just Ratified the World’s Most Progressive Family Code”] Peoples Dispatch. September 26, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220930032053/https://peoplesdispatch.org/2022/09/26/cubans-just-ratified-the-worlds-most-progressive-family-code/ Archived] 2022-09-30.</ref> Additionally, since 2008, gender reassignment surgery and hormone replacement therapy have been available free of charge under Cuba’s national healthcare system.<ref name=":31">''The Independent''. 2018. “Inside Cuba’s LGBT Revolution: How the Island’s Attitudes to Sexuality and Gender Were Transformed,” January 4, 2018. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cuba-lgbt-revolution-gay-lesbian-transgender-rights-havana-raul-castro-a8122591.html</ref>

In general, a trend of increased awareness of LGBT issues in society is progressing in the AES countries, along with an increase in explicit legal protections and improved access to quality healthcare for the LGBT community. In general, many of the social issues faced by the LGBT communities of the AES countries are similar to issues faced by the LGBT communities in other countries in their respective regions. Cuba serves as an example of highly progressive protections for LGBT individuals. In China, Laos, and Vietnam, LGBT advocates are organized and freely seeking expansions of their rights and increased awareness in society, and the expansion of protections in the workplace and improvements in healthcare are increasing. This can be seen in China with the opening of various trans healthcare clinics and with trans people successfully winning lawsuits to prevent workplace discrimination,<ref name=":33" /> in Vietnam with the discussion of Article 37 of the Civil Code and improvements in trans healthcare, and in Laos with the presence elected transgender, lesbian and gay public officials,<ref name=":30" /> the Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy and the government's willingness to work with LGBT rights organizations such as Proud to Be Us Laos and LGBT advocates within the Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union. In DPRK, the human rights focus remains primarily on economic improvements meant to increase the quality of life of all citizens.

=== People's Republic of China ===
Xin Ying, executive director of the Beijing LGBTQ Centre, characterizes the status of LGBT rights in [[People's Republic of China|China]] is quoted in a 2021 article as saying that "China’s situation isn’t the worst in Asia, but it still has room for improvement."<ref name=":2">{{News citation|author=Phoebe Zhang|newspaper=South China Morning Post|title=For LGBTQ people in China the picture is mixed, global report finds, with some legal protections but barriers to freedom of expression|date=2021-12-21|url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/family-relationships/article/3114633/lgbtq-people-china-picture-mixed-global-report-finds}}</ref>

According to a 2018 CGTN article,<ref name=":16">{{Web citation|newspaper=CGTN|title=LGBT in China: Changes and Challenges|date=22-Jan-2018|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3163444d7a677a6333566d54/index.html}}</ref> "Homosexuality in China has a complex history. Unlike homosexuality in the West where religious attitudes prevailed, homosexuality has long existed in Chinese history and culture and there have been art and literary works about it. Nonetheless, disdain and discrimination have often been the rule, understanding and compassion the exception."

The article quotes Professor Li Yinhe of the Institute of Sociology under the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences as saying:<blockquote>I think the biggest challenge for homosexuals is not about the ban of their activities. Governments don’t do such things any more. Their biggest problem is the deep-rooted culture of oppression in China that over-emphasizes so-called 'family values.' We refer to the phenomena as being family-oriented whereas western countries are more individual-oriented. This means in China, you should always prioritize your family value in life. When there are conflicts between family values and personal joy, personal joy should also give way.<ref name=":16" /></blockquote>
==== Role of NGOs in destabilization efforts in China ====
According to an article entitled "West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security" appearing in People's Daily, "Experts on international intelligence and security said under the intensifying China-US competition, foreign hostile forces have increased efforts to target the political security of China rather than merely conducting regular espionage activities. [...] Apart from targeting Xinjiang and Hong Kong which are traditional geopolitical hotspots, foreign hostile forces are also keen to use issues like LGBT, feminism and environmentalism which are easy to stir heated discussions on social media via disinformation and rumors to create problems by instigating conflicts between specific groups in China" and continues by saying, "Fortunately, this kind of practice is unable to cause a significant impact or escalate into a massive color revolution, since with the modernization and development of China, the majority of Chinese netizens are able to discuss these issues with a mature and reasonable attitude, and legal civil organizations on LGBT or environment protection will distance themselves from hostile foreign intervention."<ref name=":0" />
==== Legal status of LGBT issues ====
China decriminalized homosexuality in 1997 and officially removed it from the white book of mental disorders, the Chinese Mental Disorder Classification and Diagnosis Standard (CCMD-3) published by China’s Ministry of Health in 2001.<ref>The Diplomat. (2018, June 5). ''China’s Complicated LGBT Movement''. <nowiki>https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/chinas-complicated-lgbt-movement/</nowiki></ref>

Same-sex relationships are legal in China, although same-sex marriage and adoption are not currently legal. Although same-sex marriage is not legal, Chinese LGBT couples have found other ways to gain some legal protection. For example, same-sex couple married overseas can be named as each other’s “legal guardians”, a status considered fairly similar to a civil union.<ref name=":2" />

Transgender individuals are legally allowed to receive healthcare and may legally change their gender marker after receiving sexual reassignment surgery. In recent years, transgender treatment facilities have become more available in China, including the opening of a clinic for the treatment of transgender minors in 2021, where both psychological help and hormone treatment will be available.<ref name=":3">Zhang Wanqing and Li Jiaru. (2021-11-08) "China’s First Clinic for Trans Youth a ‘Good Step,’ Advocates Say." Sixth Tone. URL: https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1008904/chinas-first-clinic-for-trans-youth-a-good-step%2C-advocates-say-</ref>
==== Attitudes toward LGBT community ====
[[File:National Survey Results about LGBT descrimination in China, BMC Public Health 2020.png|thumb|Findings of a BMC Public Health survey about public attitudes toward LGBT people in China, conducted in 2015.<ref name=":21">Wang, Yuanyuan, Zhishan Hu, Ke Peng, Joanne Rechdan, Yuan Yang, Lijuan Wu, Ying Xin, et al. [https://d-nb.info/1214031323/34 “Mapping out a Spectrum of the Chinese Public’s Discrimination toward the LGBT Community: Results from a National Survey.”] ''BMC Public Health'' 20, no. 1 (May 12, 2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08834-y</nowiki>.</ref>]]According to a 2020 report published in BMC Public Health, "Chinese people’s view of the LGBT community is strongly impacted by the distinctive Chinese cultural context. It is likely that LGBT individuals’ experiences pronounced negative feelings, psychological distress and perceive severe discrimination within the traditional Chinese cultural context" and "Although there have been many public policies developed for improving the rights of stigmatized and marginalized LGBT individuals, they still face a great deal of discrimination in various contexts."<ref name=":21" />

From the report's data, collected in 2015, the authors conclude that "a higher level of economic development in provinces was associated with a decrease in discrimination, and we identified that every 100 thousand RMB increase in per capita GDP lead to a 6.4% decrease in discriminatory events perpetrated by heterosexuals." Additionally, "Chinese LGBT groups consistently experience discrimination in various aspects of their daily lives. The prevalence of this discrimination is associated with the economic development of the province in which it occurs."<ref name=":21" />

According to the BMC report:<blockquote>We mapped perceived discrimination against LGBT persons separately for each of the seven environments. As shown in Fig. 1c, of the seven settings, the highest level of self-perceived discrimination was reported for social services (Mean = 57.1, SD = 5.7), and discrimination was higher in the north of China. LGBT participants also reported relatively higher levels of self-perceived discrimination in religious settings, with a mean score of 53.5, with a noticeably high incidence among lesbians living in Hainan (Mean = 70.6) and Xinjiang (Mean = 69.2), and transgender persons living in Gansu (Mean = 68.1). Self-perceived discrimination was generally lower in medical service settings (mean = 36.7, SD =3.8), with the exception of transgender participants, who reported an elevated rate (mean = 39.6, SD = 2.7). In school settings, LGBT participants reported a moderate to high level of discriminatory behaviors by peers or teachers (mean = 52.9, SD =3.9), with a relatively lower level of discrimination found among the lesbian group (mean = 48.9, SD =3.1). LGBT participants reported less attention and biased reporting on their community by Chinese media (mean = 56.3, SD =2.7). In family (mean = 47.5, SD =2.3) and workplace settings (mean = 48.4, SD =3.1), a moderate rate of perceived discrimination was reported by LGBT participants.<ref name=":21" /></blockquote>The report also states that "In terms of heterosexuals’ acceptance towards the LGBT community, heterosexual participants reported a high level of acceptance of social relationships with LGBT individuals, such as having LGBT friends or colleagues. However, heterosexual participants reported that it was hard to accept their own children identifying as LGBT. [...] For member of the Chinese LGBT community, the greatest source of pressure to conform to societal norms of sexuality and identity comes from family members—particularly parents."<ref name=":21" />
==== Status of transgender social issues ====
[[File:Findings of 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University.png|thumb|Some of the findings of the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University, regarding perceived levels of "friendliness" towards trans individuals in different work environments.<ref name=":4">Xin Ying, Qi Ji, Wu Lĳuan, et. al. "2017 Chinese Transgender Population General Survey Report." November 2017. Beijing LGBT Center. URL: https://chinadevelopmentbrief.org/publications/2017-chinese-transgender-population-general-survey-report/ PDF: https://chinadevelopmentbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2017-Chinese-Transgender-Population-General-Survey-Report.pdf</ref>]]According to the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University,<ref name=":4" /> China's policy and attitude towards transgender people is "improving", citing regulation about transgender SRS in China becoming more friendly in 2017. Among the report's recommendations were to eliminate SRS as a prerequisite for change of gender markers and names on identity documents, a recommendation to add a “third gender” category on official identity documents, to strengthen provisions in existing legislation to prohibit discrimination against transgender people, and to better respect and protect the gender identity and expression of transgender people, de-pathologize transgender people in the mental health system, to advocate for the bodily autonomy of transgender people within the medical system, and include transgender-specific topics in mandatory sex education curricula.

However, although transgender issues in China can be said to be improving, the report also found there are current significant challenges faced by the community, such as unreliable access to healthcare, widespread depression, rejection from family, and disadvantages in employment, issues which are presented in further detail in the report. For example, the report found that most responds thought that the requirements for SRS candidates in various regulations were "unreasonable." Additionally, transgender women reported the highest levels of discomfort in public spaces, with public restrooms causing the highest anxiety among respondents.

Social rejection was included in the study:<blockquote>Nearly 90% of natal families cannot fully accept their transgender children. Of the 835 respondents that reported that they had disclosed their gender identity to their parents or guardians, four times as many respondents said that they had been totally rejected by their parents or guardians (38.9%) than those who said they had been totally accepted (10.9%). Of these, those most likely to experience rejection were transgender women. Nearly half (48.5%)of who totally being rejected by their parents or guardians were transgender women.<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

==== Status of transgender healthcare ====
According to Dr. Pan Bolin of the Department of Transformative Surgery at Peking University Third Hospital, close to 80% of the transgender community require hormone treatment.<ref name=":5">Tong Xiaoyu. Oct 05, 2021. "At This Niche Clinic, No Stares, Smirks, or Stigma." Sixth Tone. URL: https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1008624/at-this-niche-clinic%2C-no-stares%2C-smirks%2C-or-stigma</ref>

According to the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University, although 71.2% of respondents who had had SRS did so in a domestic hospital, approximately one in five of these respondents reported experiencing some form of discrimination, invasion of privacy, medical accident, or complications while a patient at a domestic hospital.

Regarding hormone therapy, the report states:<blockquote>Transgender people who reported using or having used hormone therapy in the past reported that the main channel through which they obtained hormone therapy drugs had been through “online pharmacies” (66%) or “obtained from friends” (51%). The most commonly reported method of using the drugs was “independently reading the directions for use or looking for information” (72%) and “consulting the opinions of friends” (66%).</blockquote>The report is intended "to provide government departments, international groups, and non-profit and for-profit organizations with a statistical foundation for an up-to-date understanding of China’s transgender population."<ref name=":4" />

In 2017, the Comprehensive Gender Dysphoria Clinic was opened.<ref name=":5" />

In 2021, The Children’s Hospital of Fudan University opened a clinic serving transgender children and teenagers in Shanghai.<ref name=":6">Cai Wenjun. 2021-11-05. "Nation's first transgender clinic opens in Shanghai." Shine. https://www.shine.cn/news/metro/2111057625/</ref> According to Xin Ying, director of the Beijing LGBT Center, the hospital's move was in line with World Health Organization’s 2019 guidelines on gender-identity related health.<ref name=":3" /> According to an article by Shine, "Professionals will conduct evaluations, diagnoses, psychological treatments and medication" to reduce the negative emotions of transgender minors and help improve their academic performances and family relationships, noting that hospital officials "said the clinic will serve as a bridge to connect transgender children with their families, doctors and society."<ref name=":6" />

According to a Global Times article about the clinic, Luo Feihong, director of the endocrine and genetic metabolic department of the Children's Hospital explained that the professional assessment, diagnosis, psychological treatment and necessary medicine intervention by doctors of multidisciplinary professions are of great help to reduce the negative emotions of transgender children and adolescents. Treatment improves their academic performance, their family relations, and builds a harmonious society.<ref>Nov 04, 2021. "China's first clinic for transgender children and adolescents set up in Shanghai." Global Times. URL: <nowiki>https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1238161.shtml</nowiki></ref>

==== Media ====
The 2021 short documentary film "A Day of Trans" (Chinese: 跨越性别的一天) explores the lived experiences of four Chinese transgender individuals across three generations, exploring their professional career paths, community involvement, social barriers, and their unique approaches to life as transgender individuals across the generations. It is directed by Yennefer Fang, a Chinese transgender independent filmmaker. It follows Liu Peilin, who was born male in 1956 and was raised as a man by a foster family but she always felt like a woman, and started identify as a woman in her 40s. It also follows Mr. C, a 35-year-old transgender man, who became the public face in the fight for job equality in China in 2016 and who won a court case against his employer for discrimination for his gender identity. Finally, it follows two transgender artists who grew up during China's rapid economic growth, who talk about the greater chances they had to express themselves. They work at institutions that offer support to the transgender community. Fang, as a member of the community, said that she tries to observe the status of transgender people from an internal perspective and tries to dispel misconceptions through the documentary, including the perception that "transgenderism" is a contemporary or white, middle-class western term.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lY1L1p29vuc "A Day of Trans 跨越性别的一天"]. Yennefer Fang, Yennefer Fang Studios. YouTube. </ref><ref name=":33">Ji Yuqiao. [https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1239389.shtml “New Documentary ‘a Day of Trans’ Explores Experiences of Three Generations of Chinese Transgender Persons."] Global Times. November 19, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220927204956/https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1239389.shtml Archived] 2022-09-17.</ref>

=== Republic of Cuba ===
[[File:The Conga Against Homophobia and Transphobia, part of the awareness campaign organized by CENESEX.png|thumb|303x303px|The Conga Against Homophobia and Transphobia is held every May in Havana, as part of the awareness campaign organized by CENESEX. The sign reads, "I am part of the Revolution, I too am Fidel."<ref name=":22">Nuria Barbosa León. 2018. “Defending Sexual Diversity.” Granma.cu. December 13, 2018. <nowiki>https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2018-12-13/defending-sexual-diversity</nowiki>.

‌</ref>]]On September 25, 2022 a referendum was held to approve amendments to the Family Code of the Cuban constitution. The referendum passed, legalizing same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption in Cuba, along with other changes such as greater protections provided for children and women's rights, and recognition of diverse family structures and bonds.<ref name=":28">Yeilén Delgado Calvo. [https://www.granma.cu/codigo-de-las-familias/2022-09-26/cuba-dijo-si-al-codigo-de-las-familias “Cuba Dijo Sí.”] [[Granma]]. September 26, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220928124824/https://www.granma.cu/codigo-de-las-familias/2022-09-26/cuba-dijo-si-al-codigo-de-las-familias Archived] 2022-09-28.</ref><ref name=":29">Labrador, Maria. [https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2022-09-22/love-also-generates-kinship “Love Also Generates Kinship.”] Granma. September 22, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220928125838/https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2022-09-22/love-also-generates-kinship Archived] 2022-09-28.</ref>

In 1979, laws criminalizing gays were eliminated in [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]].<ref>{{Web citation|author=COHA|newspaper=Council on Hemispheric Affairs|title=From Persecution to Acceptance? The History of LGBT Rights in Cuba|date=2012-10-24|url=https://coha.org/from-persecution-to-acceptance-history-of-lgbt-in-cuba/|archive-url=https://archive.is/DsVL0|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1979 the Cuban government finally removed homosexual acts among consenting adults from the Penal Code as a criminal offense.}}</ref> In 1986 the National Commission on Sex Education introduced a program on homosexuality and bisexuality as healthy and positive. Prominent leaders like Cuban president Fidel Castro and Cuban Federation of Women president Vilma Espín began to speak out against anti-gay attitudes.<ref name=":23">Kanowitz, Saul. 2006. “Solidarity Is the Key to Advancing LGBT Rights – Liberation School.” Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a New Generation of Fighters. May 31, 2006. https://www.liberationschool.org/06-05-31-solidarity-is-key-to-advancing-l-html/.

‌</ref> Cuba’s National Center for Sex Education (CENESEX), founded in 1988, "promotes sex education based on a socialist, emancipatory paradigm, recognizing the right to sexuality as inalienable" and is attached to the Ministry of Public Health.<ref name=":22" /> In 1997 all anti-gay references in Cuban laws were eliminated.<ref name=":23" /> The Cuban Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia has taken place annually since 2007.<ref name=":22" />

Since 2008, gender reassignment surgery and hormone replacement therapy have been available free of charge under Cuba’s national healthcare system. In regard to HIV-related issues, condoms are distributed, and sex education and access to antiretroviral drugs have increased.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Lydia Smith|newspaper=The Independent|title=Inside Cuba's LGBT revolution: How the island's attitudes to sexuality and gender were transformed|date=2018-01-04|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cuba-lgbt-revolution-gay-lesbian-transgender-rights-havana-raul-castro-a8122591.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/w9vOD|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09}}</ref>

Historically, discriminatory laws existed for the LGBT community in Cuba, although modern efforts have been made to raise awareness and promote LGBT rights. It should be noted that bourgeois media has repeatedly taken advantage of the real, historical persecution of Cuba's LGBT community as an opportunity for inciting public opinion against Cuba and manufacturing consent for Cuba's destabilization. Meanwhile, the LGBT legal and social situation in Cuba continues to develop through the efforts of the Cuban people themselves, with LGBT rights and protections gradually expanding and being debated as education on the subject is promoted by activists and parts of the government in the context of Cuba's own history and culture.[[File:Conversation on cubadebate.cu about the 2022 family code.png|thumb|Users of cubadebate.cu hold a comment section discussion prior to the referendum about Cuba's Family Code (Código de las Familias), voicing their opinions for and against aspects of the change in law which includes the subject of same-sex marriage and parental rights.<ref>{{News citation|author=Yaima Puig Meneses|newspaper=CubaDebate|title=Código de las Familias: Una ley digna y construida por los cubanos (Family Code: A dignified law built by Cubans)|date=6 junio 2022|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2022/06/06/codigo-de-las-familias-una-ley-digna-y-construida-por-los-cubanos/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802120720/http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2022/06/06/codigo-de-las-familias-una-ley-digna-y-construida-por-los-cubanos/|archive-date=2022-08-02}}</ref>]]

==== 2022 Family Code ====
On September 25, 2022 amendments to the Family Code of the Cuban constitution were passed, legalizing same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption in Cuba, along with other changes such as greater protections provided for children and women's rights and recognition of diverse family structures and bonds.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":29" />

A September 22, 2022 article in [[Granma]], the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the [[Communist Party of Cuba]], described the code prior to its adoption by saying, "For the first time ever, the Family Code recognizes diversity and the value of affection," and continues, "As never before, the Family Code provides the opportunity to strengthen family ties, to access collegiate conflict resolution, to open space for all members of a family to be heard, cared for and respected; it recognizes diversity and the value of affection. Each of the chapters of the Code is a door to inclusion, understanding and, logically, love."<ref name=":29" />

In a July 2022 article, Gay Community News wrote about Cuba's announcement to hold the landmark ‘Family Code’ referendum. The article notes:<blockquote>The consultations showed that approximately 62% of Cuban citizens are in favour of updating the constitution to provide for more inclusive legislation.

Tweeting the news of the assembly’s vote in favour of holding the referendum, Miguel Díaz-Canel, President of Cuba said “The deputies have just approved the #CódigoDeLasFamilias.”

Showing his support for a yes vote he continued “They do well to call it ‘Code of affections’ because it has developed something really new: affection as a legal value.”<ref name=":7">{{News citation|author=Han Tiernan|newspaper=GCN (Gay Community News)|title=Cuba to hold momentous referendum on same-sex marriage|date=25 JULY, 2022|url=https://gcn.ie/cuba-momentous-referendum-same-sex-marriage/}}</ref></blockquote>The article stated that, as well as improving the lives of same-sex couples and their families, the proposed changes to the legislation "would also see greater protections being provided for children as well as guaranteeing improved rights for women" and mentioned that if the referendum were to pass, Cuba would become the eighth country in South America to legalize same-sex marriage.<ref name=":7" />

==== LGBT rights education efforts and CENESEX ====

In regard to Cuba's cultural context as a formerly colonized society with a patriarchal and homophobic influence, a 2020 article on the English version of the CubaDebate website addresses Cuba's past persecution of the LGBT community and its modern efforts to promote education and acceptance about LGBT rights, placing this struggle in the context of global politics:<blockquote>Cuban culture has a strong patriarchal Hispanic-African heritage, with a long homophobic tradition, a model of domination imposed by the Spanish colonial system and its official religion, along with a worldwide scientific approach that stigmatized homosexuality.

When the Revolution triumphed, medical, psychological, social and legal sciences around the world took positions against homosexuality, and considered it an example of illness, insanity, moral decadence and deviation from social norms.

Unfortunately, the permanence of institutionalized homophobia in the first decades of the Revolution has not been analyzed in all its complexity. This situation is exploited by those who only see it as an opportunity to profit from the well-funded market of attacks on Cuba. Given this reality, it is essential that our institutions critically analyze practices that are inconsistent with the humanist spirit of the revolutionary process.<ref name=":15">{{News citation|newspaper=CubaDebate|title=Sexual rights and emancipation in Cuba|date=May 18th, 2020|url=http://en.cubadebate.cu/news/2020/05/18/sexual-rights-and-emancipation-cuba/}}</ref></blockquote>The article goes on to say that the initiative to celebrate the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia, beginning May 17, 2007, has had "significant impact on the mobilization of the Cuban population’s social conscience" and furthermore, since 2008, "we have dedicated the entire month of May to developing educational and communication activities that promote respect for free sexual orientation and gender identities, as an exercise in justice and social equity, under the name of Cuban Days against Homophobia and Transphobia." According to the article, these days are coordinated by CENESEX, through the Ministry of Public Health (Minsap), along with other state institutions, the government, and the support of the Party at all levels. Campaigns have been focused on the family, school, work and, more recently, recognition of all rights for all people, without discrimination due to their sexual orientation or gender identity.<ref name=":15" />

Commenting on the state of the LGBT education campaign and legal status, the article says:<blockquote>In total harmony with these decisions, since 2019, our Constitution textually recognizes sexual and reproductive rights, prohibits discrimination against persons with non-homonormative sexualities, protects family diversity and clearly regulates marriage as a legal institution accessible to all persons without discrimination of any kind.

Of course, we still have a long way to go. That is why we educate for love and respectful coexistence, not for the perpetuation of relationships of domination or violence. We educate in the humanist and democratic principles that are inspired by the emancipatory paradigm of socialism, in freedom as a complex individual and collective responsibility. We will continue working until all justice is achieved.<ref name=":15" /></blockquote>Vázquez Seijido, assistant director of CENESEX, was quoted in a Granma International in a 2018 article as saying:<blockquote>Our institution is very diverse in terms of the activities undertaken. On the one hand, it dedicates important efforts to scientific research in order to obtain the grounds that support undergraduate and postgraduate training processes. We have diploma and masters programs, and we are working on a PhD program. We also teach several short and training courses, which we offer nationally and internationally. We also undertake various actions at the community level, visualized in the four major events held throughout the year, with a vast social and media impact.<ref name=":22" /></blockquote>According to Mariela Castro Espín, Director of the National Sex Education Center (CENESEX), on the topic of homophobia in the cultural and historical context of Cuba and the LGBT education efforts in a 2014 interview:<blockquote>This is a problem the world over. We have inherited a Spanish culture which is strongly patriarchal, homophobic, and highly discriminative. Such a long period of prejudices cannot be eliminated immediately. But, are we going to continue reproducing the oppressive, exploitative past, the past which invents prejudices in order to dominate persons? This is a society in search of socialism; we are fighting to articulate revolutionary ideas which will guarantee a society where the genuine emancipation of human beings is attained.

For that reason, we must go on working, with the support of the media, in different actions which invite reflection. When we talk about an educative strategy, we are talking about education with a bio-ethical viewpoint, which invites dialogue and reflection. We do not want to impose our viewpoints. [...] The most important thing we have achieved is dialogue. The Cuban population is discussing these issues. We receive many letters of thanks, telephone calls, messages on our webpage [...] Many people approach us and tell us very gratifying things, like “now I’m a better person,” “thanks to your work I no longer discriminate against my children,” or “I no longer feel afraid of homosexuality.”<ref>Liberation School. 2014. “Cuba: ‘for Families Free of Homophobia’ – Liberation School.” Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a New Generation of Fighters. August 12, 2014. <nowiki>https://www.liberationschool.org/cuba-for-families-free-of-homophobia/</nowiki>.

‌</ref></blockquote>Liberation News provides a brief overview of Cuba's legal history regarding LGBT matters, saying that in the early years of the revolution, the attitudes and policies in Cuba were similar to the prevailing ideas elsewhere in the world, and that as the revolution developed, "the impact of the international LGBT struggle began to be felt" and was followed by a removal of anti-LGBT laws in 1979, and a growing public awareness and legal protections for the LGBT community.<ref name=":23" />

=== Democratic People's Republic of Korea ===
Information about the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (DPRK) is hampered by a lack of reliable information and a preponderance of deliberate disinformation. A commonly used source of information about DPRK is the testimony of defectors, but the defectors are not necessarily reliable sources for several reasons, such as cash incentives that encourage more sensational testimonies, and the mediation of testimonies through U.S. and South Korean intelligence agencies. In an article of the South Korean publication [[Hankyoreh]], an analysis is made of the media situation surrounding DPRK: "Time and time again, conservative outlets and foreign media circulate and reproduce rumors based on questionable sources [...] Notably, retractions and apologies are rarely ever provided when the reports are shown to be false."<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Hankyoreh|title=[News analysis] The insidious threat of fake news surrounding North Korea|date=May.5,2020|url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_northkorea/943697.html}}</ref> It is important to keep in mind this situation when seeking information about DPRK. Due to the lack of information and the questionability of information about DPRK, an analysis of LGBT rights in the country will be generally permeated with these problems.

==== LGBT legal situation ====
The Constitution of North Korea does not explicitly address discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.

Homosexuality and transgender issues are not formally addressed in the penal code of DPRK.

[[Dermot Hudson]], who is associated with the [[Korean Friendship Association]], stated in an interview with Vice that "The DPRK has not legalized gay marriage, but it does not have laws prohibiting homosexuality. In the past, DPRK publications have made critical remarks about homosexuality, but it is not seen as a big priority either way."<ref>Angus Blair. [https://www.vice.com/en/article/yvqpk5/an-interview-with-north-koreas-uk-spokesman "An Interview with North Korea’s UK Spokesman."] Vice.com. March 6, 2014.

</ref>

According to the website of [[Young Pioneer Tours]], a tour company that operates in DPRK, "homosexuality is not against the law in North Korea, and people from the LGBT community are more than welcome to travel here – in fact, openly gay tour guides have frequently led tours here without issue. That being said, North Korea is a sexually conservative country, and this applies to sexuality anywhere on the spectrum," adding that "Overt shows of affection by anyone of any sexual orientation tend to be frowned upon" in DPRK.<ref name=":25">[https://www.youngpioneertours.com/lgbt-north-korea/ “Can LGBT People Travel to North Korea? — Young Pioneer Tours.”] 2019. Young Pioneer Tours. May 10, 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/2/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/lgbt-north-korea/ Archive URL].

‌</ref>

A defector named Lee Je-sun, interviewed in 2015, gave an example of a situation in which parents tried to prevent their daughter from being in a lesbian relationship. Although they would try to call the police to break up the relationship, Lee explains that the police have no power to arrest her because homosexuality is not illegal in DPRK. Lee explains that "even if the police wanted to play hardball," the same-sex couple couldn't be arrested, and all the police could do to enforce the parents' wishes was "make them write a letter in which they promise not to cross-dress" after which the daughter would be free to go.<ref name=":17" />

Regarding DPRK's views on human rights in general, the ''Understanding Korea'' by Kim Ji Ho states: <blockquote>The DPRK government will make constant efforts to perfect the system of human rights laws to give fuller play to the advantages of the people-centred socialism of the Korean style, on the basis of the experience and lessons gained in establishing human rights mechanisms so far. It will develop the system of socialist human rights laws by stipulating afresh the omitted parts of the system, amending and supplementing the existing ones and formulating new rights in the direction of raising the effectiveness of human rights legislation to the maximum and fully reflecting the demands of norms of international human rights laws. It will fully reflect the people’s demands and interests in working out human rights laws and encourage them to actively participate in this undertaking. Officials in the legislation of human rights laws will be encouraged to have consultation with the masses, give an ear to their voice and accept their good opinions. The system of petition will be used more effectively so that everyone can present his or her opinion on the work of formulating new human rights laws or amending and supplementing the existing ones. <ref name=":24" /> </blockquote>Regarding prospects for the rights of "special groups", ''Understanding Korea'' states: "Regarding the protection and promotion of the rights of special groups, including children, women, the elderly and people with disabilities, as an important task, the DPRK government is making strenuous efforts for its implementation." Kim Ji Ho also calls attention to the aggressive U.S. and Western policies towards DPRK that aim to stifle and destabilize the country, which causes a great negative impact on the Korean people's ability to enjoy their rights:<blockquote>The economic sanctions and blockade the US, in collusion with its vassal states, has imposed on the DPRK have been unprecedented in their viciousness and tenacity. These moves are aimed, in essence, at isolating and stifling the country and destabilizing it so as to overthrow its system. The moves the US resorts to by enlisting even its vassal states are a crime against human rights and humanity, which check the sovereign state’s right to development and exert a great negative impact on its people’s enjoying of their rights, a crime as serious as wartime genocide.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>Kim states that DPRK places a focus on economic development as a way of promoting human rights, contrasting it with U.S. and western efforts to stifle and destabilize DPRK by raising concern about "human rights" in DPRK, and states that DPRK "attaches importance to the development of the sectors that are directly linked to improving the people’s living standards, provides the working people with wonderful conditions for labour and material life, and steadily improves the people’s living standards through the expansion of the people-oriented policies of the ruling party and the government." Kim adds that "Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect."<ref name=":24" />

==== LGBT social situation ====
According to various defector testimonies and anecdotal stories of tourists to DPRK, the Western conceptualization of LGBT identities is not widespread in DPRK.<ref name=":19">Oliver Hotham. November 13, 2013. "Being Gay in the DPRK". NK News. URL: https://www.nknews.org/2013/11/being-gay-in-the-dprk/</ref><ref name=":26" /><ref name=":17" /> Although the Western framework of LGBT identity is not widespread in DPRK, defectors who have later encountered the Western conceptualization of LGBT identities have later described themselves or others as being gay, lesbians, or bisexuals, and described gender non-conforming people, as well as describing situational homosexuality in the military.<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":17" /> Accounts of former DPRK citizens as well as of visitors to DPRK have described varying attitudes and levels of awareness about LGBT issues among individual people in DPRK.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":19" /> An article by ''NK News'' states that "Korean culture is traditionally conservative and any displays of open sexuality are frowned upon" and suggests that north Korean attitudes toward homosexuality can be compared to those of south Korea in the recent past.<ref name=":19" />

Jang Yeong-jin (장영진), an openly gay North Korean defector, wrote a semi-autobiographical book titled ''A Mark of Red Honor'' (Korean title: ''붉은 넥타이'') about his experience of defecting due to his unfulfilling relationship with his wife, and his later discovery of and identification with the gay identity after his defection.<ref name=":32">{{Web citation|newspaper=서울신문|title=동성애 탈북자 장영진씨 “북한 떠난 지 25년 만에 짝 찾아 결혼 계획” (Homosexual defector Jang Young-jin "plans to find a mate and marry him after 25 years of leaving North Korea")|date=2021-03-21|url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20210321500086}}</ref> In an interview, he describes how in DPRK he never encountered the concept of homosexuality and sought out doctors to find out why we was not attracted to his wife, but found no conclusive reasons. He also states that homosexual behaviors are common in the military, but that this is more due to the long celibacy policy of the military service, saying "there is almost no awareness of homosexuality in the North" and that "it is very common for men to hug and kiss each other in the military". He adds that "there is no concept of homosexuality, or any problem with it."<ref name=":26">{{Web citation|author=최재봉|newspaper=Hankyoreh|title=탈북자이자 성소수자 작가, 이중의 장벽에 맞서다 (North Korean defector and LGBT writer confronting the double barrier)|date=2015-04-16|url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/book/687207.html}}</ref>

In a panel discussion hosted by [[Nodutdol]], participants of the [[Korea Education and Exposure Program]] (KEEP), who travelled to DPRK with delegations of people of the Korean diaspora, discussed their experiences in north Korea. One panelist stated that two members of their delegation identified as queer and were interested in discussing the topic of queerness and queer politics with north Koreans if they got the chance to, noting that although "queerness" may be regarded as a Western construct, they were still interested in discussing the topic. Toward the end of their trip, they gave their translators a brief glossary of LGBT terminology. They explained, "we created a brief list, a glossary of terms related to LGBT communities, and we just handed it to them. And the following delegation after us, in 2013 I believe--this is what I heard from them--they found out that the interpreters really studied the words, the language exchange that we did, and they integrated these new words into their work." The panelist concluded, "it's not a homophobic country. It's like, we can't make that kind of assumptions, either." Another panelist commented, "We were queer, we were bi-racial, bi-ethnic, you know, and there was this really overwhelming embracing of us as Koreans".<ref>[https://eastisapodcast.libsyn.com/keep-stories-from-north-korea "KEEP: Stories from North Korea."] Panel discussion hosted by Nodutdol. [[The East is a Podcast]], March 7, 2022.</ref>

According to The Korean Friendship Association, quoted in ''NK News'': <blockquote>The Korean Friendship Association, the leading international organization promoting North Korea, insists that even more liberal treatment takes place, claiming that “the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect…Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world.”<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>The ''NK News'' article comments that "North Korean propaganda has referred to homosexuality as something foreign and un-Korean, a product of western imperialism and vice. [...] A cursory look through KCNA archives brings up little mention of homosexuality in the DPRK; any mentions of it are devoted to criticizing either the United States or Japanese imperialism. Homosexuality is often portrayed as a form of imperialist humiliation –in the same category as the sexual enslavement of Korean women during the Japanese occupation." Hazel Smith, described as a "North Korea watcher" at the Wilson Institute, was reported in the article as saying that homosexuality as it is conceived of in the West does not exist conceptually in DPRK. The article also talks about the experiences of gay tourists in DPRK:<blockquote>Simon Cockerell, who runs North Korea travel service Koryo Tours, says he frequently takes gay western tourists to North Korea, and the responses are often surprising.

“When (North Koreans) meet gay tourists (of which there are many) they often think it is quite funny,” he said, “a little bit of a playground attitude, basically.”

“I wouldn’t say I have seen much in the way of homophobia from any North Koreans at all,” Cockerell said. “After all, you may hate that which you don’t understand, but its hard to be anti-something that you have no real conception of at all.”

[...] A gay tourist who has visited the DPRK several times who chose to remain anonymous, told ''NK News'' that during his last visit he had been escorted around the country by two very different tour guides. One, a girl from an elite Pyongyang family, exhibited an awareness of homosexuality and the other, a male who had never left the country, seemed unaware of it even as an idea.

When the tour concluded the source noted that: “the female guide even said something approving of the couple being together, and how nice it was that they had decided to be ‘best friends’ for life”. Not a remarkably progressive statement, certainly, but in a country where homosexuality seems to barely be recognized, this tour guide’s acceptance of a gay couple is certainly noticeable.<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>Young Pioneer Tours answers questions on their website about LGBT travelers to DPRK, saying that, "anything outside heteronormativity" is not something to which people in DPRK are accustomed, and state that the most that a LGBT traveler to DPRK can expect in terms of scrutiny is curiosity about their sexual orientation. However, the tour company also notes that asking people from DPRK questions of a sexual nature may cause offense, and should be avoided. They state that LGBT visitors to DPRK "will be accommodated and made to feel welcome in the country".<ref name=":25" />

A defector named Lee Je-sun, interviewed in 2015, stated that "transgender people do exist in North Korea" but that they do not receive sexual reassignment surgery, noting limitations in the medical infrastructure and the cost of such procedures. Lee also states that while in DPRK, they had never come across the terms "gay" and "lesbian" but that they had noticed people with a "different sexual preference" and said "as long as they were good people, we didn’t have any problem being friends with them regardless of their sexual preference" and also says later in the interview that they had met many lesbians in DPRK and that many of them wore men's clothes, kept their hair short, and "acted like men" and liked to date women. In regard to discrimination, Lee said "people would gossip from time to time because they didn’t have anything else to do in their free time. People didn’t treat them with contempt and the LGBTs were never shunned or excluded from the society" but also notes that same-sex relationships have a "bad reputation" among some people, such as parents who try to prevent their daughters from being in lesbian relationships. Lee remarked on lesbian relationships, saying that "adults used to say that they’re so sweet to their girlfriends. Once you fall in love with them, you’re not likely to be attracted to men again. [...] Parents of girls would do anything to keep their daughters from lesbian girlfriends." Lee mentions that although some parents would try to get legal authorities involved to split up their daughters' same-sex relationships, the police had no legal ability to arrest them for homosexuality, and after writing a letter promising not to cross-dress, they would be free to go.<ref name=":17" />

===== Interview of a defector on LGBT social situation =====
[[File:NK News article about LGBT.png|thumb|774x774px|A screenshot of the interview about LGBT issues in DPRK appearing in NK News.]]
'''''Note:''' There are some apparent editorial comments/questions in parentheses in the original article, and they are preserved here in translation. Additionally, the Korean language often uses gender-neutral pronouns, as well as leaving pronouns out of sentences, although gendered forms of pronouns do exist and may be used. Therefore, the use of pronouns below may be ambiguous or inconsistent with English language conventions.''

In a 2015 Korean-language article titled "Are there gays in North Korea? I asked a North Korean!"<ref name=":17">NK News. 2015-02-08. [https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ "북한에도 게이가 있나요? 북한 사람에게 물어봤습니다!"] ("Are there gays in North Korea? I asked a North Korean!") NK News. [https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ URL]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220803063529/https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ Archive URL]. [https://archive.md/sOwSw Archived English Version].</ref> the following descriptions are given, identified in the article as being provided by Lee Je-sun (이제선), their age stated as "late 20s" and who defected in 2011.

Commenting on their own attitude toward apparently LGBT individuals:<blockquote>Actually, it was in a South Korean school, while listening to a lecture about women's studies, that I learned about LGBT, since in North Korea I never heard anything about the concept of lesbians or gays. While I was listening to that lecture, I started to piece together [...] things I had experienced in North Korea. When I lived in North Korea, I didn't really think anything about them other than thinking of them as unusual people with unusual tastes. That's because whatever someone's sexual orientation may be, if they like people, we can become friends without any issue. People around would talk behind their back, but they were busy earning a living, so it was just the chatter of older ladies in their free time, and it wasn't contempt or exclusion. [...] I believe that understanding, consideration, and social concern for sexual minorities are necessary. </blockquote>On the topic of male homosexuality, the interviewee stated:<blockquote>I have not personally seen gays directly. I've only heard that that kind of behavior comes up a lot in the military, according to what adults said. [...] However, as this could just be an alternative way of relieving the desire for women, it's a bit difficult to conclude that it's gay (homosexuality).</blockquote>Describing an apparently gender non-conforming individual, the interviewee said:<blockquote>When I was younger, I once went on a mobilization out to a rural farming village. In North Korea, each year in autumn the first through third-year high school students are sent out to a farming village for a month in order to provide support. At that time, in a very remote country village, I saw an unusual person.

They definitely looked like a man, but they wore heavy makeup, and every day they would sit on the stepping stones by the stream. I was quite curious, so I asked the townspeople, and they said that the person was a man but they kept on wearing women's clothing and putting on makeup, so their parents--who were in the city--sent them to go live in the village. I would secretly look at this person with my friends. I found them odd but also fascinating.</blockquote>Regarding lesbian relationships, the interviewee stated:<blockquote>I actually saw a lot of lesbians, and even hung out with them. I don't know if it's because I'm a woman, but there were a number of lesbians around. The majority of the lesbians liked wearing mens' clothing. They also would have their hair in a short, sporty style and wear mens' clothing, and would have masculine behaviors. They all liked dating women. According to what adults would say, if a women got involved with one of them, it would be difficult to break up, because it's better than being with a man. They themselves would like it, but the people around them wouldn't. There is also one's social image, and especially the sentiment that one's parents would never give permission.</blockquote>Regarding the disapproving response of parents to lesbian couples, and the attitude of the police:<blockquote>People naturally like talking behind others' backs, don't they? The people around them (the lesbian couple) would guess about things they weren't even doing, which would spread rumors. The lesbian's parents had already given up (?) their daughter, so it didn't matter, but the heterosexual girl's parents' stance was different.

In order to find some way to get their daughter out of it, they even made a report to the police and hit her. However, even though the police went to get the lesbian, there was no law for punishing her. At most, the police could only scold her for public indecency, and as it would also be difficult for them to hold her accountable for a serious offense, they had her write a pledge to not wear men's' clothes again. The important thing is that even though people would laugh or talk about the lesbians, people didn't despise or exclude them.</blockquote>Regarding an apparently gender non-conforming and/or possibly intersex and/or bisexual individual, the interviewee said:<blockquote>There was one unusual person living the next neighborhood over. They were neither a woman nor a man. Thanks to this, the people in that neighborhood were never bored. I didn't know whether I should call them ajimi (big sister?) or uncle, to the point that I would even hesitate because I couldn't distinguish. That person even had a husband and a pair of kids. Even so, they were having an affair with a woman so there was always gossip about them.

This person was masculine to the extent that on first glance, anyone would think they were a man. They had a fuller chest than anyone else, but people took this person to be a man. In North Korea, women can't ride bikes but she alone could ride one.

This was because even the traffic police couldn't distinguish their gender. While they were trying to determine whether they were a woman or a man, they would already have passed by. They also had a good personality and a kind heart, so I liked them a lot. [...]

Whenever I went to my friend's house, they always came there, and they would do all of the house chores that a man does. Of course they maintained a good relationship with their husband and took care of their kids and financial parts, they were responsible for all of these things. Something people were very curious about regarding this person was actually, more so than about them being bisexual, that they earned money well and maintained the house well, maybe they were jealous of her diligence. </blockquote>The interviewee addresses sexual reassignment surgery procedures, speaking on both intersex-related and gender-affirming reassignment surgery:<blockquote>In regards to sex reassignment, rather than by individual inclination, it is handled by the government. For example I have heard that if someone is born and they physically don't have male or female genitalia, in the hospital where they are born, after a consultation is done with their parents, they will perform a sex reassignment surgery. However, I haven't experienced this personally and neither has anyone I know, so this is just hearsay.

I can confidently say that it is completely impossible in North Korea to change sex based on one's own sexual orientation, regardless of physiological issues. That's because medical facilities aren't developed enough, and there aren't wealthy people to pay the huge expenses in order to support their sexual orientation.<ref name=":17" /></blockquote>

==== Unreliability of defector testimonies ====
''See also: [[Library:DPRK Study Guide|DPRK Study Guide]]''

Jiyoung Song, former UN Consultant for the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights who has interviewed North Korean defectors since 1999, wrote in a 2015 article for the Asia and Pacific Policy Society, that "numerous" testimonies by North Korean defectors "are later found unreliable" and that there is "a fundamental question about heavily relying on defectors’ testimonies as credible evidence" adding, "there are issues with the current methodologies used in investigating North Korean human rights and serious ethical dilemmas many researchers have to deal with."<ref name=":18">{{Web citation|author=Jiyoung Song|newspaper=Asia and the Pacific Policy Society|title=Unreliable witnesses: The challenge of separating truth from fiction when it comes to North Korea|date=2015-08-02|url=https://www.policyforum.net/unreliable-witnesses/}}</ref>

Among the issues with the current methods of obtaining defector testimonies, Song includes that cash payments have been "standard practice" in the field, paying up to $200 USD per hour as of 2014, and that in South Korea, defectors are paid between $50 to $500 USD per hour, "depending on the quality of information s/he had." Regarding this, Song states that this practice "raises serious questions about the payment as ethical research: What is the impact of payment on interviewees’ stories? How does the payment change the relation between a researcher and an interviewee? The more exclusive stories they have, the higher the fees are." According to Song, "North Korean refugees are well aware of what the interviewer wants to hear" and "The more terrible their stories are, the more attention they receive. The more international invitations they receive, the more cash comes in. It is how the capitalist system works: competition for more tragic and shocking stories."<ref name=":18" />

On her personal experience with interviewing North Korean defectors, former UN Consultant Jiyoung Song states:<blockquote>In my 16 years of studying North Korean refugees, I have experienced numerous inconsistent stories, intentional omission and lies. I have also witnessed some involved in fraud and other illicit activities. In one case the breach of trust was so significant that I could not continue research. It affected my professional capacity to analyse and deliver credible stories in an ethical manner but also had a deep impact on personal trust I invested in the human subjects I sincerely cared about.<ref name=":18" /></blockquote>Song also speaks on the role of intelligence agencies in mediating such testimonies:<blockquote>Behind all these challenges in studying North Korean refugees, there has been a lingering question about the role of the South Korean National Intelligence Service in the making of North Korean defector-activists. The sudden rise and disappearance of certain North Korean defectors, their testimonies before foreign parliaments and the UN or the spread of unverifiable sources of information through major news outlets seem to be facilitated by a combination of various individual and institutional forces.<ref name=":18" /></blockquote>
=== Lao People's Democratic Republic ===
[[File:Proud to Be Us (Laos).png|thumb|A photo from the organization Proud to be Us (Laos), a LGBT civil society organization in Laos.<ref name=":20">{{Web citation|newspaper=Civil Society Laos|title=Proud to Be Us (Laos)|url=https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/proud-to-be-us-laos/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803082338/https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/proud-to-be-us-laos/}}</ref>]]Same-sex sexual activity is legal in [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], and is not believed to have ever been criminalized. Currently, there are no laws prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation, and the national Constitution of Laos does not expressly address sexual orientation or gender identity issues. Regarding citizens' rights in relation to gender, Article 35 states "Lao citizens are all equal before the law irrespective of their gender, social status, education, beliefs and ethnic group" and Article 37 states "Citizens of both genders enjoy equal rights in the political, economic, cultural and social fields and in family affairs."<ref>{{Web citation|author=Translated by Khamphaeng Phochanthilath|newspaper=Constitutions Project|title=Lao People's Democratic Republic's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Laos_2015.pdf?lang=en}}</ref>

According to a study by APCOM published in 2020, "LGBTQI people in Laos are living in a relatively tolerant society. While it is observed that the LGBTQI community in Lao can express themselves, there are challenges to being LGBTQI in Lao society. Some of the social, cultural and religious beliefs and norms are connected to LGBTQI people experiencing stigma, discrimination and marginalization." The report notes that although Lao culture is "for the most part" "rather tolerant" of homosexuality, lesbians are particularly misunderstood in Laos.<ref name=":30">[https://www.apcom.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-11-26_Report_APCOM_FinanceInc_LaoPDR_Rev_2-withLogos.pdf "The State of LGBTQI People’s Economic Inclusion: Lao PDR."] APCOM. 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929030759/https://www.apcom.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-11-26_Report_APCOM_FinanceInc_LaoPDR_Rev_2-withLogos.pdf Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

The report also states, "The government is more open to opening and expanding space for civil society organizations to work on LGBTQI issues; there are now elected transgender, lesbian and gay public officials; many LGBTQI people can access information through social media, and more and more people seem to be coming out. On the other hand, there are still many forms of violence and discrimination happening every day to LGBT people in Laos. Society’s structural focus on binary gender norms and the heterosexual unit of the family prevents people from having a better understanding of LGBT issues."

The APCOM study described the most significant forms of LGBT discrimination in Laos as a significant lack of recognition as individuals with aspirations, potential and agency because of traditional societal and family structures, in addition to stigma, discrimination and misunderstanding of LGBTQI identities by society at large, particularly towards lesbians, as well as discrimination in educational institutions and in the workplace and health facilities, and a lack of mechanisms to report violence and discrimination.<ref name=":30" />

The Government of Lao People’s Democratic Republic, health workers, teachers, parents, and community leaders has worked to design programs supported by the The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). The goal is to promote the rights of young people and encourage them to access information, care, and assistance. One example of such activity was a mobile clinic which reached youth, including LGBTQI youth, in remote areas and equipped them with sexual and reproductive health resources.<ref>[https://www.friendsofunfpa.org/unfpa-helps-laotian-lgbtqi-youth-find-peace-purpose-and-community/ “UNFPA Helps Laotian LGBTQI Youth Find Peace, Purpose, and Community.”] Friends of UNFPA. May 19, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220119132732/https://www.friendsofunfpa.org/unfpa-helps-laotian-lgbtqi-youth-find-peace-purpose-and-community/ Archived] 2022-01-19.</ref>

According to a 2008 U.S. Department of State "Human Rights Report": "Within lowland Lao society, despite wide and growing tolerance of homosexual practices, societal discrimination persisted against such practices. There was no official discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, but social discrimination existed. The government actively promoted tolerance of those with HIV/AIDS, and it conducted awareness campaigns to educate the population and promote understanding toward such persons."<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119045.htm "2008 Human Rights Report: Laos."] U.S. Department of State. 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. February 25, 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226175604/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119045.htm Archive] URL.</ref>

==== Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy ====
According to the Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy for 2021-2030, published by the Lao People's Revolutionary Youth Union in August 2021, "Diverse groups of adolescents and youth, such as out of school, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex, and adolescents and youth with disabilities, were consulted" in the strategy formulation process.<ref>[https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/lao_youth_and_adolescent_development_strategy_2021-2030_eng_26nov21-final.pdf "Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy 2021-2030."] The Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union. August 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220430034558/https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/lao_youth_and_adolescent_development_strategy_2021-2030_eng_26nov21-final.pdf Archived] 2022-04-30.</ref> The APCOM study mentions the Lao People’s Democratic Republic National Adolescent and Youth Policy includes affirmative action for vulnerable adolescents and youth which includes LGBTQI people. Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union which is one of the mass youth organizations in Laos and has been lobbying to put emphasis on vulnerable adolescents and youth.<ref name=":30" />

==== Proud to Be Us Laos ====
According to the website Civil Society Laos, the LGBT organization Proud to Be Us Laos (PTBUL) is directed by Anan Bouapha was established in 2012, operates in Vientiane, and has the stated goal to "Support people with sexual and gender diversity (LGBTIQ) to participate in national development affairs and be the spokesperson/representative of people of sexual and gender diversity in the Lao PDR in order to work with the government to address issues related to this community."<ref name=":20" />

According to Bouapha, PTBUL's director, in a 2015 article: "LGBT’ is still abstract terminology, yet to be clearly identified to the eyes and ears of the public." Additionally, Bouapha is quoted as saying that "Many people might think that Laos is conservative and extremely close-minded when it comes to LGBT issues. Realistically, our culture and mentality seem to be quite open-minded to people from all walks of life [...] I have seen many transgender people wearing traditional costumes to temples, attending traditional ceremonies and some gay students expressing his identity among his peers and teachers."<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=J&C Group|title=In Laos, An Invisible Minority Is Finding Its Voice|date=2015-10-20|url=https://jclao.com/in-laos-an-invisible-minority-is-finding-its-voice/}}</ref>

In 2019, members of PTBUL participated in an event for the International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia, which a 2019 UNESCO article states "was a chance for them to show society at home and the international community that LGBTI people in Laos not only exist, but are ready to be seen and heard" and states that with "around 150 participants, mostly Lao government officials, foreign diplomats and members of civil society organizations, it was the biggest IDAHOT celebration to occur in the country to date."<ref>{{Web citation|author=David Young|newspaper=UNESCO|title=Being LGBTI in Laos: Increasing visibility and support of a growing movement|date=29 May 2019|url=https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/being-lgbti-laos-increasing-visibility-and-support-growing-movement}}</ref>

==== Community Health and Inclusion Association (CHIAs) ====
CHIAs is a non profit organization established in 2012, which aims to promote and ensure that empowerment, rights and gender approaches are integrated in all new and revised programmes, policies, and frameworks on health and development that affect the key, vulnerable and marginalized groups. They describe their target group as "Young key, vulnerable population (KVP) who are living and affected by diseases including people Who Use and Inject Drug (PWUD-PWID), LGBTIQ, Sex Workers, Mobile & Migrant including ethnic and disability."<ref>[https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/community-health-and-inclusion-association-chias/ “Community Health and Inclusion Association (CHIAs).”] Lao Civil Society. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929040532/https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/community-health-and-inclusion-association-chias/ Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

==== Health services for LGBTQI people in Laos ====
According to the 2020 APCOM study, when participants were asked about ordinary health services they have access to, the most common answers were sexual health services. Gay male participants reported they had access to HIV tests, sexual transmitted disease (STIs) treatment, primary healthcare. Some of them had access to cosmetic/plastic surgery in [[Thailand]]; Lesbian participants had access to general health care but there is no specific HIV and STIs services; Trans men participants had access to general health care but there is no specific HIV and STIs services; Trans women participants all had access to HIV and STD treatment and general health services. Some of them also undertook plastic surgeries in Thailand. Hormone injections were available in Laos but had not been administered by medical doctors; Bisexuals were able to access HIV treatment, STIs and general health care. All the participants reported dissatisfaction with the medical environment in terms of encountering discriminatory attitudes. Trans women also seem to face higher incidences of discrimination from health service providers. The report recommends that health professionals should receive training on LGBTQI people’s mental and sexual health; and specifically, on mental and sexual health for trans people, including hormonal counselling.<ref name=":30" />

==== Media ====
The 2019 short film "Let's Love" explores the struggles of its main subject, Mai, a lesbian in Laos and her complex relationships with her family, friends and wider society as she navigates her identity.<ref>[http://seajunction.org/lets-love-on-lesbian-invisibility-in-laos-thanita/ “Let’s Love: On Lesbian Invisibility in Laos - SEA Junction.”] SEA Junction. February 21, 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929025117/http://seajunction.org/lets-love-on-lesbian-invisibility-in-laos-thanita/ Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

=== Socialist Republic of Vietnam ===
[[File:PFLAG Vietnam Photo.jpg|thumb|A photo of from the PFLAG Vietnam Facebook Group. PFLAG is an organization for supporting, educating, and advocating for LGBTQ+ people and their families.]]According to a 2022 article by Vietnam Investment Review, "[[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]] has implemented some legislative protections for the LGBTI+ population. In 2014, the new Marriage and Family Law lifted the restriction on same-sex marriage; while Article 37 of the 2015 Civil Code, which went into effect in 2017, permits gender reassignment surgery."<ref name=":12">{{News citation|author=Hue Anh|newspaper=Vietnam Investment Review|title=Vietnamese LGBTI+ people paint their own identities|date=July 06, 2022|url=https://vir.com.vn/vietnamese-lgbti-people-paint-their-own-identities-94707.html}}</ref>

According to an ILGA Asia report from 2021, "In general, there is more social and cultural tolerance toward LGBTIQ people in the larger cities than that in rural areas. Politically, LGBTIQ activists in Vietnam perceived that they can be more focused when they have to deal with only one single party government."<ref name=":14" />

The ILGA report, quoting one of its members, says the following regarding the relationship between activists and the single party government in Vietnam:<blockquote>Lawmakers do not know about LGBTIQ and we [activists] provide them with information. Gradually, this has become a peaceful relationship…. Ministries consulted with us about LGBTIQ related issues and vice versa. I think by acting as government’s ally, we can achieve more …and we tactfully advocate for more “space” for our movements and for other human rights CSOs in Vietnam… A vivid example is that we can prove to the world that parades [VietPride events] can be conducted in this country…. The interesting thing is that in Vietnam, human rights can lean on LGBTIQ rights to sustain, that is totally different in many contexts in the world that I would know.<ref name=":14" /></blockquote>A 2021 article published by [[NonLa Collective]], who describe themselves as a "digital front of Vietnamese communists", speaks on the topic of LGBT issues in Vietnamese politics and history:<blockquote>As we see it, gender and sexuality liberation has a different character in Vietnam as opposed to capitalist countries precisely because of it NOT being driven by economics. We agree [...] that bourgeois-liberal identity politics constitute little more than marketing ploys and cynical co-opting of LGBTQ+ issues.

Vietnam’s traditional culture was quite open in many ways in terms of gender and sexual liberty, especially compared to contemporary cultures. For instance, being gay has ''never'' been criminalized in Vietnam at any point in recorded history, and we have rich traditions such as the Lên đồng, which allowed trans people to live openly in our society.

Prejudices against gay and trans people in Vietnam were heavily exacerbated by foreign influences: first by feudalism, as Neo-Confucianism imposed upon our society the idea that we must be “breeders” (that we are not patriotic or socially subservient if we do not get married and produced children), and next by colonialism, as the French imposed Western prejudices and intolerances on us for many decades.

Therefore, our LGBTQ+ liberation movement has a much different character than Western countries and must be viewed as such. At a grassroots level, Vietnam has native access and traditional experiences to draw from in our struggle for equivalence and liberation in society. We do not have to have access to capitalist wealth and media influence to spread our messaging, as is necessary in capitalist nations (though we do have extremely popular LGBTQ+ celebrities and significant media representation for gay, trans, bisexual, and queer people on national television [...]

With all this being said, we must recognize that LGBTQ+ rights in Vietnam still remain an important issue, and much more progress needs to be made. Fortunately, LGBTQ+ community members have been fighting for our rights publicly, with much more activity ramping up over the last decade. And although we have a long way to go, we still have made achievements which should be recognized, especially in terms of social awareness of LGBTQ+ community, increasing acceptance, and relatively low violence towards LGBTQ+ people compared to most other countries on Earth. In addition, the Ministry of Health has officially announced an intention to provide healthcare services for the LGBTQ+ community in its goals for 2021–2030. [...]

Ultimately, it’s true that our society has many problems when it comes to LGBTQ+ issues. It’s also true that the Vietnamese revolutionary government can and should do more, and more quickly, to address the needs and concerns of LGBTQ+ citizens. But, speaking as LGBTQ+ Vietnamese ourselves, we do not feel as if we need to be “rescued” by foreign-imperialist organizations like USAID, nor do we see how dismantling our revolutionary government would ''help'' our LGBTQ+ movement in any way.<ref name=":27">{{Web citation|author=NonLa Collective|newspaper=Medium|title=Debunking Meo Mun’s Lies About Vietnam|date=November 10, 2021|url=https://nonla.medium.com/debunking-meo-muns-lies-about-vietnam-ddcdccbdcaec|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815041811/https://nonla.medium.com/debunking-meo-muns-lies-about-vietnam-ddcdccbdcaec|archive-date=2022-08-15|retrieved=2022-08-15}}</ref></blockquote>In a 2020 article by the Asahi Shimbun entitled, "Vietnam’s ‘first trans dad’ shows LGBT+ openness and challenges", the birth of a child to a transgender couple "highlighted Vietnam’s position as one of the most progressive countries on LGBT+ rights in Asia" and stated that "Vietnam has quietly become a trailblazer on LGBT+ rights in Asia in recent years, with laws to decriminalize gay marriage and allow same-sex couples to live together, although it stopped short of a full legal recognition of such unions."<ref name=":8">"Vietnam’s ‘first trans dad’ shows LGBT+ openness and challenges" Thomson Reuters Foundation. The Asahi Shimbun. July 3, 2020. URL: https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13512489</ref>

Grete Lochen, Ambassador of Norway to Vietnam has been quoted as saying, “Vietnam has a youthful, diverse, and proud LGBTI+ community with increasing acceptance from society. Being a lesbian myself, I have personally experienced this advancement very clearly. The country can serve as an example of inclusiveness for other nations in the area, albeit considerable work remains.”<ref name=":12" />

In a 2014 article published by Thanh Nien News, it was stated that the law in Vietnam no longer specifically prohibits same-sex marriages, but says they aren't recognized by the government, saying that it does not allow same-sex partnership either, but noted that "the issue has been open for discussion during many house meetings." The article also mentions that a nationwide survey conducted by iSEE in 2013 found that 57 percent of people supported same sex couples to raise children together and 51 percent supported their rights to legally share assets.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Thanh Nien News|title=Vietnam allows surrogacy within families, denies same-sex marriage|date=June 20, 2014|url=http://www.thanhniennews.com/politics/vietnam-allows-surrogacy-within-families-denies-samesex-marriage-27502.html}}</ref>

A 2019 article states that "Quality health care services at the public Binh Dan Hospital in HCM City’s District 3 is now being offered to people in the LGBT community." Nguyen Tan Thu, a doctor specializing in serving LGBT people, said the service at a public hospital was especially important because patients had often complained about discriminatory attitudes at public hospital facilities. To meet the high demand of LGBT individuals, the hospital provides counselling about sexual and reproductive health for them and their relatives. The hospital also provides screening, prevention and treatment for HIV and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as general counselling. They are also provide counselling about hormone therapy before, during and after transition, and receive treatment for complications after transgender surgery. The article says that Binh Dan Hospital is one of several health facilities in the city providing health care services for LGBT people.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Vietnam Plus|title=HCM City: Quality health care services offered for LGBT community|date=January 15, 2019|url=https://en.vietnamplus.vn/hcm-city-quality-health-care-services-offered-for-lgbt-community/145157.vnp}}</ref>

==== Civil Social Organizations ====
Civil Social Organisations (CSO) have "closely been controlled by the single party government in Vietnam," according to a 2021 ILGA Asia report on Vietnam. The main reason is that the government is cautious of CSOs, especially those working on human rights, who may do harm to the Communist party and the government. In the past, CSO "was a very sensitive and contentious term in the government’s official documents." However, at the present time, the government is "more open to CSOs working on health and LGBTIQ matters," and the ILGA report quotes an ILGA member as saying that "Not all CSOs working on human rights will have to face tight control from the government… It depends…. If you are working on human rights related to the environment, land or freedom of speech issues, you will be tightly controlled by the government… If you are working on human rights of women or children, you will be given more space for operation.”<ref name=":14" />

==== Influence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Catholicism ====
According to a 2021 ILGA Asia report, Vietnam is heavily influenced by the Confucian culture originating from China that "strongly supports heterosexual and traditional family models of straight men and women. That, in turn, has had significant influence on social perceptions and attitudes toward LGBTIQ people." Additionally, the report states that Buddhism and Catholicism are the major religions in Vietnam, and notes that "there has been no apparent evidence of stigma and discrimination towards the LGBTIQ community in the country from organized religious groups." Under the observation of the researcher, Buddhist philosophy in Vietnam has peaceful and tolerant approaches in embracing LGBTIQ people. Meanwhile, Catholics in Vietnam are believed to be more conservative about LGBTIQ people, although according to the report they "do not inflict harm on the LGBTIQ movement as a whole."<ref name=":14" />

==== Article 37 of the Civil Code ====
[[File:Many LGBT activists flock to the streets in Hanoi to applaud the new legislation. They raise flags and boards, some of which read “Cam on Quoc hoi” (Thank you, National Assembly). .jpg|thumb|371x371px|LGBT activists gather in Hanoi to applaud the National Assembly's approval of a bill for legal gender change legislation in 2015.]]In 2015, the Vietnamese National Assembly approved a bill to legalize sex reassignment surgery and to introduce the right to legal gender recognition for transgender people who have undergone such surgery.<ref>"Vietnam: Positive Step for Transgender Rights." Human Rights Watch. URL: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/11/30/vietnam-positive-step-transgender-rights</ref> The National Assembly, having agreed in principle that this law should be made in 2015, have since given a mandate to the Ministry of Health to work out the specifics of that law, as well as how it should be implemented.<ref name=":9" />

Regarding the slow progress of the bill, the director of the ICS Center, a nationwide legal advocacy group, stated:<blockquote>“Though the transgender law is still debated within the transgender community, the main reason that hasn’t been passed is because there have been a lot of new laws proposed in the last two years,” says Linh. “At present, the transgender law is not the Health Ministry's priority. The draft bill has been proposed eight times from 2017 until now but it still hasn’t been prioritised, most likely because this law only affects a small minority of the population.”

Despite this challenge, there is a palpable sense of hope and anticipation within the local community that major progress could be made in the next few years. “I don’t think we’ll never be prioritised just because we're a minority,” says Linh. “It just means we need stronger visibility, to raise our voices and express our needs.” [...] “We hope to achieve same sex marriage, hopefully in the next 6 years,” says Linh. “I hope that the transgender law will be resolved sooner, since it’s achieved more progress than the same-sex marriage law.” <ref name=":9" /></blockquote>

==== Transgender community ====
According to a 2012 report on the transgender community in Vietnam by the Institute for Studies of Economy, Society, and Environment (ISEE), In Vietnam, the term “transgender” is relatively new, thus the usage of the term may be tricky. A number of Vietnamese terms are currently used to imply “transgender,” such as “người chuyển giới”,“người xuyên giới” or “người vượt giới.” On the other hand, the term “transsexual” is more or less unanimously understood as people who desire to have their bodies changed or have undergone surgeries for sex change. The report states that in practice, "people usually use the term “người chuyển giới”, which causes confusion in both understanding the actual meaning and the subject being referred to. This is because many transgender people do not completely “switch” to the opposite biological sex. Instead, they often have a sense of a vague gender identity, or may change between forms and genders, depending on specific time and circumstances. These individuals are commonly categorized into two groups, namely Male to Female Transgender (MtF) and Female to Male Transgender (FtM)." MTF transgender people in Ho Chi Minh City often call each other “bóng” (shadow), “bóng lộ” (open shadow). In Hanoi, they often use the word “Tigi” (Vietnamese pronunciation of the acronym TG for transgender). FTM transgender people often refer to others and themselves as “trans” and “trans guy”.<ref name=":13">{{News citation|author=Phạm Quỳnh Phương, Lê Quang Bình, Mai Thanh Tú|newspaper=Institute for Studies of the Economy, Society, and the Environment|title=Aspiration to be Myself: Transgender people in Vietnam: realities and legal aspects|date=2012|url=https://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/images/Ausland/Suedostasien/Transgenders_report.pdf|Publishing location=Hanoi}}</ref>

The 2012 ISEE report states, "It is obvious that the transgender group is one of the most vulnerable and stigmatised in society" and provides several examples of challenges faced by transgender people both worldwide and within Vietnam, listing examples such as prejudiced and inaccurate messages in media, violence, rape, robbery, bullying at school and lack of support from family, and difficulties in finding employment. The report also notes that transgender people in Vietnam "face prejudices also from the gay and lesbian community, who think that transgender people are the reason for social stigmas against the LGBT community as a whole."<ref name=":13" />

Providing examples of problems faced by the transgender community of Vietnam, a 2020 Asashi Shimbun article quotes Mai Như Thiên Ân, a transgender man and founder of the Female-to-Male (FTM) Vietnam Organization:<blockquote>“When trans people go for a checkup at the hospital, they would be denied because their gender on paper doesn’t match their appearance," [...] The biggest problem is health care. Trans people still buy and inject hormones on their own and go to ‘underground’ places for (reassignment) surgery,” said An, 26, who since 2015 has run a Facebook transgender support group with over 5,500 members.<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>

==== Media ====

The director of the ICS center, a legal advocacy group, spoke on LGBT representation in media:<blockquote>“In the past 2-3 years, there has been a lot of LGBTQ representation,” says Linh. “Talk shows and reality shows create a lot of positive influence, although most of them are not perfect, and there are still stereotypes and bias. But it does bring different stories to the general public. That is something we appreciate about the media. And we will need all this visibility and much more in order to pass the transgender law in Vietnam.”<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>The article notes that though stigma and harmful stereotypes certainly remain in pop culture, LGBTQI+ representation seems to be steadily increasing and improving in Vietnam. Citing examples, the article says that in the Spring of 2019, popular TV game show Người Ấy Là Ai featured a young gay male contestant who shared his story on national television. His parents later joined him onstage and talked about how they had come to love, accept, and celebrate their son for who he is, and former Vietnam Idol singer and transgender pop icon, Huong Giang, is also a regular judge on this show, which has subsequently featured a handful of other LGBTQI+ contestants.<ref name=":9" />

In contrast to these recent increases of positive representation in media, a 2012 study on challenges faced by the transgender community in Vietnam, by ISEE, describes the state of LGBT representation in media back in 2012: "Prejudiced and inaccurate messages in the media and telecommunication channels have created and enforced misleading perceptions and social stigmas. Transgender people are described as 'homosexual', 'ridiculous' or 'sick'. They are not even regarded as a community" and adds that "the media often mistakenly regards transgenderism and homosexuality as the same, which causes the homosexual community to distance itself from the transgender community."<ref name=":13" />

As of mid-2022, the Vietnamese LGBT+ YouTube Channel "Come Out - LGBT Việt Nam" had 328.6K subscribers and features interviews of LGBT individuals in Vietnam.

In 2015, a biographical documentary film called ''Finding Phong'' (Vietnamese: ''Đi Tìm Phong'') was released, following the journey of a Vietnamese trans person seeking to transition and receive sexual reassignment surgery. According to VN Express, it was the first independent Vietnamese documentary to be screened in the country's top cinema chains, and Vietnamese film authorities gave it a rating of "suitable for all ages."<ref>{{News citation|author=Dat Nguyen, Bao Ngoc|newspaper=VN Express International|title=Finding Phong finds a paying audience in Vietnam|date=2018-10-31|url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel-life/finding-phong-finds-a-paying-audience-in-vietnam-3831289.html|quote=The applause was not for a sold-out Hollywood blockbuster, a Vietnamese action movie or a tear-jerking romance. This time, the audience was cheering for Finding Phong, the first independent Vietnamese documentary to be screened in the country's top cinema chains.}}</ref>

According to an article titled, "Founding A Community For Transgender Men in Vietnam" from Trans World View, there was "practically no visibility" for transgender men in Vietnam in 2009. However, in that year, "a young transgender man named Nguyễn Thiện Trí Phong, who goes by Aki, began sharing his experience of being transgender through newspapers, television, and other media." This increased visibility helped the community of transgender men in Vietnam become more visible and grow. According to Mai Như Thiên Ân, the founder of FTM Vietnam, "[Before him], if transgender men took hormones, they went ‘stealth’ and tried to live like cisgender men. Young transgender men who were not taking hormones were afraid and said they were lesbians. Aki’s visibility helped create a safe zone." According to the article, the website LesKing also gradually began expanding to include transgender men. In 2011, it featured an article that helped its readers understand the differences between identifying as “SB,” a tom/tomboy (another identity for a masculine woman), and a transgender man. The article states: "it was an “aha” moment for hundreds, if not thousands, of transgender men like Ân who finally felt they had a way to explain their identity."<ref>''Founding A Community For Transgender Men in Vietnam: Interview with Mai Như Thiên Ân, the Founder of FTM Vietnam''. August 20, 2019. URL: https://transworldview.com/ftm-vietnam-founding-a-community-for-transgender-men-in-vietnam/</ref>

== LGBT rights in former AES countries ==

=== Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ===
After the [[Russian revolution of 1917|October Revolution]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1991)|Russia]] repealed old [[Russian Empire (1721–1917)|tsarist]] laws against homosexuality.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Olga Khoroshilova|newspaper=BBC|title=1917 Russian Revolution: The gay community's brief window of freedom|date=2017-11-09|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41737330|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428130519/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41737330|archive-date=2025-04-28|retrieved=2025-05-16|quote=After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks scrapped and rewrote the country's laws. They produced two Criminal Codes - in 1922 and 1926 - and an article prohibiting gay sex was left off both.}}</ref> The 1922 and 1926 criminal codes of the RSFSR did not mention homosexuality, but some other republics ([[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)|Azerbaijan]], [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)|Georgia]], [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1925–1991)|Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)|Uzbekistan]]) did ban homosexual relationships.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dan Healey|year=2017|title=Masculine Purity and “Gentlemen's Mischief”: Sexual Exchange and Prostitution between Russian Men, 1861-1941|title-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/masculine-purity-and-gentlemens-mischief-sexual-exchange-and-prostitution-between-russian-men-18611941/30CD22517A4CEBE83F7D12C5EF9D910F|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.2307/2697270}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Dan Healey|year=2002|title=Homosexual Existence and Existing Socialism: New Light on the Repression of Male Homosexuality in Stalin's Russia|title-url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/glq/article-abstract/8/3/349/65019/HOMOSEXUAL-EXISTENCE-AND-EXISTING-SOCIALISMNew|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.1215/10642684-8-3-349}}</ref> Like most countries at the time, the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|USSR]] considered homosexuality to be a mental disorder but usually used therapeutic or medical treatment instead of legal punishments against gay people. Article 121 of the criminal code prosecuted about 1,000 men each year and was almost only enforced in cases of pedophilia.<ref name=":35">{{Web citation|author=[[Alfonso Casal]]|newspaper=[[The Red Phoenix]]|title=On homosexuality in the USSR|date=2023-05-08|url=https://redphoenixnews.com/2023/05/08/on-homosexuality-in-the-ussr/}}</ref>

=== Mongolian People’s Republic ===
In 1961, under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, consensual same-sex sexual acts were decriminalized. This position remained through the new Criminal Code (2002).<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=ILGA Database|title=Mongolia|date=2025-06-09|url=https://database.ilga.org/mongolia-lgbti|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224083218/https://database.ilga.org/mongolia-lgbti|archive-date=2024-12-24|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1961, under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, consensual same-sex sexual acts were decriminalised. This position remained through the new Criminal Code (2002).}}</ref>

=== People's Socialist Republic of Albania ===
During the communist era of Albania, Article 137 of the 1952 Penal Code, as amended in 1958, preserved the criminalization of sexual intercourse between men that was brought upon by the leadership of Ahmet Zog, though same-sex conduct between females wasn't criminalized as the article only targeted gay men.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Kristina Millona|newspaper=Kosovo 2.0|title=Albania’s communist regime targeted gay men|date=2024-08-10|url=https://kosovotwopointzero.com/en/albanias-communist-regime-targeted-gay-men/|archive-url=https://archive.is/bsYb9|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=During communism, Article 137 of the 1952 Penal Code, as amended in 1958, preserved the criminalization of sexual intercourse between men.}}</ref> Albania legalized homosexuality on paper in 1977, but at the same time prosecuted it through other legal means until the 1990s.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Cäcilia Wosnitzka|newspaper=Copernico|title=A gay 'information office for the Eastern Bloc'?|date=2024-09-18|url=https://www.copernico.eu/en/articles/gay-information-office-eastern-bloc-transnational-activism-and-creation-queer-knowledge-during-cold-war|archive-url=https://archive.is/3Ykn|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Albania legalized homosexuality on paper in 1977, but at the same time prosecuted it through other legal means until the 1990s}}</ref>

=== People's Republic of Bulgaria ===
Bulgaria's first Criminal Code (1896) criminalized sodomy. In 1951, penalties were aggravated to up to three years of imprisonment with the enactment of the new Criminal Code (1951). Though, finally in 1968, Article 420 of the new Criminal Code (1968) repealed the previous Criminal Code and did not incorporate new sodomy provisions, thereby decriminalizing consensual same-sex sexual acts.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=ILGA Database|title=Bulgaria|url=https://database.ilga.org/bulgaria-lgbti|archive-url=https://archive.is/2o95v|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Finally, in 1968, Article 420 of the new Criminal Code (1968) repealed the previous Criminal Code and did not incorporate new sodomy provisions, thereby decriminalising consensual same-sex sexual acts.}}</ref>

=== Czechoslovakia ===
Homosexuality was decriminalized in Czechoslovakia in 1961,<ref>{{Web citation|author=Libor Kukal|newspaper=Radio Prague International|title=Why did Czechoslovakia decriminalise homosexuality relatively early?|date=2023-06-22|url=https://english.radio.cz/why-did-czechoslovakia-decriminalise-homosexuality-relatively-early-8786664|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414193411/https://english.radio.cz/why-did-czechoslovakia-decriminalise-homosexuality-relatively-early-8786664|archive-date=2024-04-14|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Czechoslovakia decriminalised homosexuality in 1961}}</ref> and went into effect on January 1st, 1962.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Equaldex|title=1960s in LGBT Rights|url=https://www.equaldex.com/timeline/1960s|archive-url=https://archive.is/PPG0Z|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1962, provisions against homosexuality were removed from the penal code and homosexuality was decriminalised.}}</ref>

=== German Democratic Republic ===
The German Democratic Republic is widely regarded, even by some liberal anti-communist news outlets<ref>{{Web citation|author=Samuel Huneke|newspaper=The Washington Post|title=Communist states have sometimes been havens for LGBTQ rights|date=2022-02-22|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/22/communist-states-have-sometimes-been-havens-lgbtq-rights/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819143809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/22/communist-states-have-sometimes-been-havens-lgbtq-rights/|archive-date=2022-08-19|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation|author=Samuel Clowes Huneke|newspaper=Boston Review|title=Gay Liberation Behind the Iron Curtain|date=2019-04-18|url=https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/gay-liberation-behind-iron-curtain/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415104606/https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/gay-liberation-behind-iron-curtain/|archive-date=2025-04-15|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref> as the most progressive 20th century socialist state where the subject of LGBT rights was concerned.

The [[German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)|GDR]] officially decriminalized homosexuality in 1968, although gay people had already been exempt from legal prosecution since the 1950s<ref name=":34">{{Web citation|author=Victor Grossman|newspaper=[[Monthly Review]]|title=My seventy years and the departed GDR|date=2022-08-24|url=https://mronline.org/2022/08/24/my-seventy-years-and-the-departed-gdr/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825143732/https://mronline.org/2022/08/24/my-seventy-years-and-the-departed-gdr/|archive-date=2022-08-25|retrieved=2022-08-26}}</ref>. The judge presiding over the decriminalization by law stated:<ref>{{Citation|author=Raelynn J. Hillhouse|year=1990|title=Out of the Closet behind the Wall: Sexual Politics and Social Change in the GDR|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500548|page=588|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.2307/2500548}}</ref>

<blockquote> “Homosexual persons are thus not excluded from the socialist society and civil rights are guaranteed to them as to all other citizens. Their discrimination and moral devaluation is to be rejected accordingly and they are to be protected from all attacks on their integrity (e.g., through defamation, bodily injury, hooliganism) through civil as well as criminal proceedings.” </blockquote>

By 1987, the GDR guaranteed equal rights for LGBT citizens.<ref name=":35" /> The state allowed for transgender people to adopt children and sponsored sex-reassignment surgery for people in adulthood. Notably, after the GDR's illegal annexation by West Germany in 1990, international queer publications suggested that trans rights might be set back by decades.<ref>Sullivan, Louis. Will German Reunification Hurt Transsexual Rights?, FTM Newsletter, June 1990.</ref>

=== Hungarian People's Republic ===
Homosexuality was decriminalized in Hungary in 1961, but until 1978 the age of consent for homosexual sex was 20 as opposed to 14 for heterosexual sex.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Linda Rapp|newspaper=GLBTQ Archive|title=Hungary|url=http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/hungary_S.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250605032429/http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/hungary_S.pdf|archive-date=2025-06-05|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Homosexuality was decriminalized in Hungary in 1961, but until 1978 the age of consent for homosexual sex was 20 as opposed to 14 for heterosexual sex.}}</ref>

=== Polish People's Republic ===

=== Socialist Republic of Romania ===

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:LGBT+]]
[[Category:Pages to be protected]]

LGBT rights and issues in AES countries

2025-06-09T15:42:11Z

37.19.213.10:

'''''Note:''' This article is about [[LGBT+|lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender]] rights in [[Actually Existing Socialism|current socialist]] countries. Due to the widespread use of the term LGBT in the Anglosphere, this article has primarily been written using this term and its variants. However, the U.S.-originated term LGBT in this article should be regarded as provisional, as the countries discussed in the article do not themselves originate in U.S. culture and their own local conceptions and histories of gender and sexuality must be considered.''
[[File:LGBT rights demonstrators in Vietnam thank the National Assembly.png|thumb|LGBT rights demonstrators in [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]] thank the National Assembly following the approval of a bill for legal gender change in 2015.<ref>[https://kenh14.vn/xa-hoi/ngay-hop-phap-hoa-chuyen-gioi-ban-tre-ra-duong-voi-bang-chu-cam-on-quoc-hoi-20151124112259576.chn "Ngày hợp pháp hóa chuyển giới: Bạn trẻ ra đường với bảng chữ "Cảm ơn Quốc hội""] (Transgender legalization day: Young people take to the streets with the sign "Thank you to the National Assembly") 25-11-2015. Kenh 14 VN.</ref>|362x362px]]
The nature and status of [[LGBT+]] rights in current and former [[Actually Existing Socialism|actually existing socialist]] (AES) countries is a common subject of inquiry and debate throughout the political sphere, chiefly among LGBT [[Communism|communists]] looking for truth and answers regarding the actual rights enjoyed and issues faced by LGBT people under AES, among reactionary and anti-communist individuals and organizations seeking to utilize or misconstrue LGBT rights violations and policy failures under AES as a way to discredit and undermine AES countries, and by communists with anti-LGBT lines seeking precedent to uphold their anti-LGBT stances. Given these intersecting desires and aims, and in some cases, concerted [[reactionary]] and/or [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] propaganda campaigns, as well as the co-optation and weaponization of LGBT struggle by [[Liberalism|liberal]], [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]], and [[Imperialism|imperialist]] organizations for destabilization of AES countries through [[color revolution]], the subject of LGBT rights in AES countries is often surrounded with difficulty and controversy.

Distinguishing between real problems faced by LGBT communities under AES, vs. anti-communist propaganda that seeks to use LGBT rights as a cover or vehicle for spreading misinformation and [[atrocity propaganda]] about AES countries, is a persistent issue in the discourse around this subject.

It should be noted that many issues faced by LGBT communities in AES countries are not issues found uniquely under socialism, but may be faced by LGBT individuals and communities under various modes of production, including in capitalist societies, and a dialectical materialist analysis must be maintained to understand the development of LGBT rights worldwide. Always keep in mind the [[Historical materialism|historical materialist]] attitude: collective discrimination of the LGBT community existed before [[Capitalism|capitalist society]] and will persist in a different form after those societies have been replaced by [[Socialism|socialist societies]]. Due to capitalist society's incessant need to [[Commodification|commodify]] and thereby further [[Exploitation|exploit]] working people, LGBT communities are commonly used as a source of new commodities to counter the [[tendency of the rate of profit to fall]] as well to confuse the working class via the [[divide and conquer]] strategies of the bourgeoise in modern [[class struggle]].

== Background information, context, and terminology ==

=== Use and meaning of LGBT terminology ===
<blockquote>''See also: [[LGBT+]]''</blockquote>LGBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s and originating in the United States, the initialism, as well as some of its common variants, functions as an umbrella term for sexuality and gender identity and has since come into international and cross-linguistic usage.

Despite the fact that the four-letter LGBT initialism does not explicitly encompass all individuals in smaller communities, the term is generally accepted to implicitly include those not specifically identified in the four-letter initialism.

Sukrita Lahiri, writing on the issue of terminology in international politics, says of the term "LGBT":<blockquote>LGBT remains the most commonly used umbrella term in the global framework of gender and sexuality, even though it has its reductionist problems as it leaves out a host of identities like intersex, queer, and questioning.<ref name=":11">{{Citation|author=Sukrita Lahiri|year=2020|title=Anti-Pinkwashing as Emerging Hope: Queering the Palestinian Liberation Movement in the Context of Institutionalised Neoliberalism|title-url=https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.13169/intecritdivestud.3.2.0053|publisher=International Journal of Critical Diversity Studies, Pluto Journals.}}</ref></blockquote>

===== Other terminology for gender and sexual minorities =====
Another commonly used term is gender and sexual minorities, under the initials GSM. Finally, another common term is the word queer, which is often used as another umbrella term for LGBT people, or gender and sexual minorities. Many people self-identify with this term, but others regard this term to be offensive and prefer not to use it. Sukrita Lahiri says of the term "queer" that it "opens up innumerable possibilities" due to the term being "intrinsically one that challenges any form of determinism" however, it "only exists in the English language and therefore it is important to be critical of the use."<ref name=":11" /> However, the term "queer" has been at least partially borrowed into some other languages.

These various terms are not universally agreed to or used by everyone that they attempt to encompass, and differences in usage may be found throughout various times in history, various communities, or in various contexts. In addition, local terminology in various countries and languages describing their own local sociocultural conceptions of gender and sexual minorities may be more commonly or more suitably used in a given location or context.

On the issue of translating topics regarding sexuality, Sukrita Lahiri writes:<blockquote>The politics of sexuality is thoroughly altered in the process of translation [...] translating sexualities in international politics pushes one to confront notions of emancipation–colonisation, sovereignty–interference, among which global narratives are locally welcomed or repelled.<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>

=== Real problems faced by LGBT communities under AES vs. anti-communist misinformation ===
Real problems facing the LGBT communities of AES countries coexist alongside anti-communist propaganda designed to malign these countries or incite color revolution in them, making the topic difficult to analyze, as reliable sources may be hard to come by, not only due to LGBT rights being a minority issue that often receives limited coverage, but also to the rampant intentional spread of misinformation on the subject.

In attempting to navigate through ever-present misinformation regarding AES countries, the actual problems faced by LGBT communities in AES countries, currently or historically, may at times be hard to accurately assess. Additionally, many problems faced by LGBT communities in AES countries are not problems found uniquely under socialism, but may be faced by LGBT individuals and communities under various modes of production, including in capitalist societies.

=== Rainbow capitalism, rainbow imperialism, and pinkwashing ===
[[Rainbow capitalism]] (sometimes called pink capitalism) refers to the involvement of capitalism and consumerism in the LGBT movement and the co-optation and weaponization of the LGBT movement by capitalist interests. Rainbow imperialism (or pink imperialism) refers to the whitewashing (also called ''pinkwashing'', see below) of imperialism through the promotion of so-called "LGBT-friendly" imperialist interests and organizations, such as promotion of LGBT inclusivity into the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref>{{Web citation|author=Thom Waite|newspaper=Dazed|title=The CIA’s latest ‘woke washing’ recruitment ad stars a gay agency librarian|date=2021-05-12|url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/52759/1/the-cia-latest-woke-washing-recruitment-ad-stars-a-gay-agency-librarian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229162030/https://www.dazeddigital.com/life-culture/article/52759/1/the-cia-latest-woke-washing-recruitment-ad-stars-a-gay-agency-librarian|archive-date=2022-12-29|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref>

Another related term is "pinkwashing" (similar to terms like whitewashing and [[greenwashing]]). Pinkwashing is the strategy of promoting LGBT rights protections as evidence of liberalism and democracy, especially to distract from or legitimize violence against other countries or communities. Pinkwashing is a continuation of the political rationale used to justify [[colonialism]] on the basis of LGBT rights.

In 2011, Sarah Schulman used the term ''pinkwashing'' in a widely read editorial in [[The New York Times|''The New York Times'']] citing [[State of Israel|Israel]] as an example of the use of the tactic of pinkwashing in public relations. Schulman states that after "generations of sacrifice and organization, gay people in parts of the world have won protection from discrimination and relationship recognition. But these changes have given rise to a nefarious phenomenon: the co-opting of white gay people by anti-immigrant and anti-[[Islam|Muslim]] political forces in Western Europe and Israel." Schulman says that an opportunistically selective depiction of usually Arab, South Asian, Turkish or African Muslim immigrants as "homophobic fanatics" is strategically contrasted against the "relevant and modern" marketing image of Israel, harnessing the gay community to reposition Israel's global image, summarizing the situation by saying that the "growing global gay movement against the Israeli occupation has named these tactics 'pinkwashing': a deliberate strategy to conceal the continuing violations of [[State of Palestine|Palestinians]]' human rights behind an image of modernity signified by Israeli gay life."<ref>{{News citation|author=By Sarah Schulman|newspaper=The New York Times|title=Israel and ‘Pinkwashing’|date=Nov. 22, 2011|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/23/opinion/pinkwashing-and-israels-use-of-gays-as-a-messaging-tool.html|quote=After generations of sacrifice and organization, gay people in parts of the world have won protection from discrimination and relationship recognition. But these changes have given rise to a nefarious phenomenon: the co-opting of white gay people by anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim political forces in Western Europe and Israel.}}</ref>

In ''Anti-Pinkwashing as Emerging Hope,'' Sukrita Lahiri writes of the relationship between pinkwashing and imperial violence:<blockquote>Historically speaking, [[settler colonialism]] has a long history of articulating its violence through the protection of certain figures such as women and children (Moghadam, 1994), and now homosexuals. Pinkwashing is just one more justification for imperial violence within this long tradition which works in part by tapping into the discursive and structural circuits produced by the West against the danger of “Islamic extremism.” In persistence of this imperial tradition, Gayatri Spivak’s (2010) well-known precept “white men saving brown women from brown men” (p. 57) gets modified with the trope of white homosexuals saving brown homosexuals from brown heterosexuals (Morris, 2010). Further, the neoliberal economic structure comfortably stretches itself to induce a compartmentalised sort of marketing of various ethnic and minoritised groups (Fraser, 2013). Thus it normalises the production of, for example, a gay and lesbian tourism industry built on the distinction between “gay-friendly” and homophobic destinations. The human rights groups voicing homosexual concerns continue to proliferate Western constructs of identity that privilege identity politics, “coming out”, increased visibility, and legislative measures as the dominant scales of social inclusion and progress.<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>

=== Destabilization of AES countries via imperialist-backed NGOs ===
Closely related to the issues of rainbow imperialism and rainbow capitalism is the practice of capitalist and imperialist powers of using a guise of "LGBT rights" to engage in foreign meddling or to manufacture atrocity propaganda to undermine the sovereignty of AES or anti-imperialist countries.

The existence of such developments and co-optations in liberal LGBT movements and capitalist and imperialist societies can lead to or inflame preexisting anti-LGBT sentiment in countries targeted by these tactics, or cause people to see LGBT movements as unwelcome foreign or bourgeois elements. This in turn can lead to persecution or suspicion of the local LGBT community. Local, grassroots, genuine proletarian LGBT movements and communities may exist alongside opportunistic meddling by imperialists and become subject to co-optation, leading to confusion and tensions around the issue.

A group called [[NonLa Collective]], a digital front of Vietnamese communists, spoke on this issue by saying:<blockquote>Ultimately, it’s true that our society has many problems when it comes to LGBTQ+ issues. It’s also true that the Vietnamese revolutionary government can and should do more, and more quickly, to address the needs and concerns of LGBTQ+ citizens. But, speaking as LGBTQ+ Vietnamese ourselves, we do not feel as if we need to be “rescued” by foreign-imperialist organizations like USAID, nor do we see how dismantling our revolutionary government would ''help'' our LGBTQ+ movement in any way. Vietnam has our own vibrant, strong, and growing LGBTQ+ liberation movement. In Ho Chi Minh City alone, in 2019, thousands of people showed up to the most recent pride event before COVID-19 broke out, and activism continues even through the pandemic. The government does not restrict or limit our voices in any way, on the contrary, LGBTQ+ stories are shared positively on state media [...] Again, we ask, how would immediately dismantling our revolutionary government help LGBTQ+ people in any way?<ref name=":27" /></blockquote>

A criticism of such tactics is put forth by Yi Zhi in a Global Times article titled "Politicizing LGBTQI issues in China could backfire on West":<blockquote>The truth is, those [Western] media outlets know very well what the issue is all about. They do not really care about the group, but rather treat it as a tool to infiltrate China, pushing their values like the so-called human rights in China. Some foreign political forces have been playing tricks over issues like feminism, AIDS, animal protection, and so on. LGBTQI has become their latest contrivance.

Controversies over the above-mentioned topics do exist and there is room for improvement in China. But what the foreign forces have been doing is cultivating their own version of the so-called civil society in China.

[...] As long as the foreign forces which support LGBTQI groups in China respect China's sovereignty and the rule of law, China will surely have their back. There will be no problem as long as the foreign forces which support LGBTQI groups in China respect China's sovereignty and the rule of law. Unfortunately, those foreign forces often have ulterior motives. Imagine if the LGBTQI groups in the West are supported by other forces which aim at overthrowing the capitalist system, will the countries turn a blind eye to them? [...] [The West] should be careful not to habitually politicize social issues, cozying up to certain groups too much and intensifying contradictions. Otherwise, they will only cause greater social injustice, triggering fierce counterattacks by right-wing populists.<ref>Yi Zhi. Dec 02, 2021."Politicizing LGBTQI issues in China could backfire on West." Global Times. URL: https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202112/1240533.shtml</ref></blockquote>According to an article entitled "West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security" appearing in People's Daily, "Experts on international intelligence and security said under the intensifying China-US competition, foreign hostile forces have increased efforts to target the political security of China rather than merely conducting regular espionage activities. [...] Apart from targeting Xinjiang and Hong Kong which are traditional geopolitical hotspots, foreign hostile forces are also keen to use issues like LGBT, feminism and environmentalism which are easy to stir heated discussions on social media via disinformation and rumors to create problems by instigating conflicts between specific groups in China" and continues by saying, "Fortunately, this kind of practice is unable to cause a significant impact or escalate into a massive color revolution, since with the modernization and development of China, the majority of Chinese netizens are able to discuss these issues with a mature and reasonable attitude, and legal civil organizations on LGBT or environment protection will distance themselves from hostile foreign intervention."<ref name=":0">''West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security - People’s Daily Online''. People’s Daily. April 16, 2021. URL: <nowiki>http://en.people.cn/n3/2021/0416/c90000-9840004.html</nowiki></ref>

In the text ''Understanding Korea No. 9: Human Rights'', a book discussing The [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|DPRK's]] views on human rights, the following commentary is provided on the U.S. and Western use of "human rights" as a tool for suppression of DPRK and other countries: <blockquote>At present, in many cases the US and the Western countries abuse the international human rights instruments as a means to justify their suppression of the rights of their people, and their invasion, intervention and human rights violations against other countries and nations. [...] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights had been abused as a tool for imposing political pressure and interfering in the internal affairs of the progressive and developing countries by the US and other Western countries after the Cold War, which attempted to pick a quarrel with the human rights situations in these countries and impose their own “human rights standards” on them.<ref name=":24">{{Citation|author=Kim Ji Ho|year=2017|title=Understanding Korea 9: Human Rights|city=Pyongyang|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House}}</ref></blockquote>The work further clarifies:<blockquote>The US and its followers conduct the anti-DPRK human rights campaign with an intention to mislead the public opinion and raise the non-existent “human rights issue” in the DPRK as an international issue, thus defaming the prestige of the DPRK in the international arena and toppling its socialist system under the veil of “defending human rights.” As it has learned that military threats are helpless in bringing down the socialist system of the DPRK, the US is trying to internationalize the anti-DPRK human rights campaign by instigating its followers. The smear campaign conducted by the US is, in nature, an acme of high-handedness and arbitrariness aimed at ignoring the political mode and social system established in the DPRK and changing them at any cost. It is also a brigandish act of destroying the very foundation of international human rights mechanisms.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>In the work, the hostile U.S. policy of using human rights as a destabilization tool is described as a major obstacle to human rights in DPRK:<blockquote>The major obstacles to the protection and promotion of human rights in the DPRK are the hostile policy pursued by the United States and other Western countries against the DPRK and their “human rights” racket. In other words, they are their moves to stamp out the country politically, blackmail it militarily and isolate and stifle it economically. [...] Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect. Thanks to the steadfast people-oriented policies advanced by the government and its continued efforts to perfect the human rights instruments, human rights will be guaranteed on a higher plane in the DPRK.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>Such articles as those cited above illustrate one of the main causes of rejection or suspicion of certain elements of Western-influenced or Western-led LGBT rights movements in AES countries.

=== Anti-LGBT sentiments among communists ===
Along with pro-LGBT positions among communists, anti-LGBT positions among communists and communist organizations are a reality. In past and present AES, both pro- and anti-LGBT positions and policies can be found. Anti-LGBT positions among communists often stem from a perceived association of LGBT movements with "bourgeois decadence" or "degeneracy", or with extreme individualism. Other anti-LGBT positions among communists may be traced to their opposition to the usage of "rainbow imperialism" to undermine and attack AES countries and communist movements, or infiltrate them with liberal-bourgeois LGBT rights organizations.

The 1975 Marxist-Leninist work, "Toward A Scientific Analysis of the Gay Question" composed by the Los Angeles Research Group,<ref name=":1">Los Angeles Research Group. "Toward A Scientific Analysis of the Gay Question." 1975. URL: https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-8/gay-question/index.htm</ref> a group of gay communist women, seeks to provide dialectical materialist explanations and criticisms of a variety of anti-LGBT positions and lines put forth by U.S. communist organizations of the time. As the term "LGBT" itself originates in the U.S., and U.S. imperialists use of "rainbow capitalism" and "rainbow imperialism" as tools against AES countries are among the main reasons for anti-LGBT sentiments among some communists, an understanding of the contradictions within the U.S. LGBT movement is relevant to understanding international LGBT struggle.

Regarding the origin of bourgeois, [[Opportunism|opportunist]], and [[Reformism|reformist]] currents arising as contradictions in the U.S. LGBT movement, the Los Angeles Research Group writes:<blockquote>The gay movement operated in the same context as [...] other progressive struggles. Chief among the contradictions within the gay movement, as in other groups, was the predominance of petty-bourgeois elements. The communist forces in the gay movement were also small in number and still primitive, and got very little support for their work from other communists. Many gay communists saw anti-war work and the working class movement as more important; gay women communists saw the women’s movement as a higher priority than the gay movement. As a practical result, the gay movement was abandoned by communists to the leadership of the petty-bourgeoisie to where it is now dominated, on the one hand, by a few opportunists and reformists, [...] who are bought off by government and foundation grants. [...] The fact that anti-gay communists take the most conspicuous gay people for the whole points again to their one-sided, superficial and subjective approach.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Among the conclusions of the Los Angeles Group is the following assertion: "The contradiction between homosexuals and heterosexuals is non-antagonistic; it can be worked out through principled struggle. Communists, gays and heterosexuals alike, must unite with the progressive aspects raised by the gay movement and struggle against those bourgeois elements which exist." The work continues:<blockquote>Just as men, women, heterosexuals, gays and minorities cross all class lines, any organization of these groups will reflect one or another class line at any given historical period depending on the strength and development of the different class forces. Gays are not inherently revolutionary (as some gay groups would say), nor inherently reactionary (as some “communist” groups would say). The class nature of gay liberation will change only when it is given revolutionary working class leadership. Until then, like all other groups, bourgeois ideology will fill the political vacuum. Even the working class, left to itself, can only develop trade union consciousness, which in the last analysis is bourgeois. To expect the gay movement to be any different when left without proletarian leadership is pure idealism. Gay people, particularly working class gays, are perfectly capable of enthusiastically grasping the science of Marxism Leninism and of being disciplined revolutionary fighters. To make enemies of potential allies is to abandon the working class and its interests.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>

=== Existence of non-heterosexual and gender-variant identities and practices in societies worldwide ===
It must be remembered that the LGBT movement that arose in the modern West is only one manifestation of a worldwide phenomenon of non-heterosexual and gender-variant identities and practices throughout history. As the majority of current and former AES countries exist outside of the West, or only on its periphery, an understanding of the local histories and conceptions of each country's own gender and sexual minorities must be investigated for a dialectical materialist understanding of their situations to be formed. As all of the AES countries have also existed in a time where the Western LGBT movement was already forming and developing, an understanding of that movement and its contradictions in conjunction with local movements and traditions would be necessary to form a nuanced understanding of the nature of gender and sexual minority cultures, histories, rights, and issues unique to each country.
On the topic of pre-modern transgender identities and spiritual traditions in Asia and the Pacific and their relationship to contemporary LGBT identities, Pauline Park writes:<blockquote>There is a very wide misconception that ‘lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender’ (LGBT) constitutes a purely modern phenomenon created by late nineteenth and early twentieth century sexologists and activists. In fact, every pre-modern Asian and Pacific Islander society had what could be termed ‘proto-transgenderal’ and homoerotic traditions which anticipate these contemporary LGBT identities, even if there are significant differences between the pre-modern and the contemporary identity formations. [...] In examining the entire history of homoerotic and proto-transgenderal traditions in pre-modern Asian and Pacific Islander societies, we must not make the mistake of romanticizing such traditions or failing to recognize the significant differences between ‘them’ and ‘us’ — meaning contemporary queer LGBT/queer APIs [Asian and Pacific Islanders], especially those of us in the diaspora. Those ancient traditions are embedded in societies which were not characterized by equality of age, gender or class relations, and many of the forms that homoeroticism and transgenderal identity took would offend our egalitarian sensibilities.<ref name=":10">{{News citation|author=Pauline Park|title=Transgender Identities & Spiritual Traditions in Asia & the Pacific: Lessons for LGBT/Queer APIs (Pacific School of Religion, 4.2.13)|date=03-31-2013|url=https://paulinepark.com/2013/03/31/transgender-identities-spiritual-traditions-in-asia-the-pacific-lessons-for-lgbtqueer-apis-pacific-school-of-religion-4-2-13/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801085500/https://paulinepark.com/2013/03/31/transgender-identities-spiritual-traditions-in-asia-the-pacific-lessons-for-lgbtqueer-apis-pacific-school-of-religion-4-2-13/}}</ref></blockquote>Park continues by saying that the examination of such pre-modern "proto-transgenderal" and homoerotic figures and images can have implications for political action "by challenging and disarming the false discourse of reactionary elements in the Asia/Pacific region today and in API immigrant communities that attempt to label LGBT identities as false and foreign, the fabrication of white, Western and even specifically American influence."<ref name=":10" />[[File:Colonial and imperial spheres of influence in Asia.jpg|thumb|A map depicting colonial and imperial spheres of influence in Asia from 1850-1914.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Facing History|title=Western Imperialism in East Asia|url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-nanjing-atrocities/western-imperialism-east-asia}}</ref>]]

=== Influence of colonialism, religion, and local tradition in views and practices of gender and sexuality ===
In addition to local and indigenous views and practices that may be found in various societies in the world, [[colonialism]] also has left a cultural impact on many societies in regard to their views on gender and sexuality. For example, in some regions, concepts of gender or sexuality may have been more or less broad, fluid, or permissive than what was introduced or imposed on those societies through colonialism. Colonialism may also impose new religious doctrines on populations, or introduce concepts that become blended with traditional, local concepts.

==== Western colonialism ====
In particular, the current AES countries have been impacted in varying ways by Western colonialism, which typically brought [[Christianity|Christian]] religious values and imposed European laws, social norms, and standards onto the issues of gender and sexuality in the countries they colonized. Depending on a variety of factors, such as the pre-existing local attitudes about gender and sexuality in a given location, the particular Western power(s) that held the most colonial influence in a region, the time period of the colonization, etc., the resulting effect on the social fabric of each society will have its own characteristics that must be uniquely considered for a proper dialectical materialist analysis.

In the AES [[Republic of Cuba]], there is a majority Christian population, primarily [[Catholicism|Catholic]]. Cuba also has a significant population practicing [[Santería]], an African diasporic religion that arose through a process of syncretism between the traditional Yoruba religion of West Africa, the Roman Catholic form of Christianity, and Spiritism. The religious situation of Cuba is illustrative of the complex overlapping cultural currents that exist in colonized nations, such as the displacement, destruction, or transformation of indigenous culture, the imposition of the colonizer's culture, and the effects of the [[Slavery|slave trade]]. The complexity of this historical and cultural situation must be considered when analyzing the history and modern status of LGBT population in Cuba.

==== East Asian cultural sphere ====
The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, encompasses multiple countries in East and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Chinese culture. The current AES countries who have historically been part of this cultural sphere of influence are the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], and the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. Imperial China was a regional power and exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, among which were Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in [[Confucianism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]]. In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Confucianism and Buddhism remain in various forms in these countries.

An ILGA Asia report from 2021 states that Confucian culture "strongly supports heterosexual and traditional family models of straight men and women."<ref name=":14">N.A. [https://static1.squarespace.com/static/526c21b5e4b0d43e45f6c4c2/t/60cc1b25ff2943704dad091e/1623989084760/Country%2BReport_Vietnam%2B%281%29-compressed.pdf Dare to Dream: The Ongoing Voyage from Invisibility to Community Empowerment, and Foray into the Region for LGBTIQ in Vietnam]. ILGA Asia, 2021.</ref> According to a study on the influence of Confucianism on modern (hetero-)sexual relationships among youths in China and Vietnam, "Traditional Confucian culture, the common base of social culture in the mainland of China, Taiwan and Vietnam, is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought with regard to individual’s relationships with others and appropriate conduct." The study found that "different aspects of Confucian culture eroded unevenly and might have different association with adolescent and youth's sexual behaviors in Hanoi, Shanghai, and Taipei undergoing rapid socio-economic change."<ref>Gao E, Zuo X, Wang L, Lou C, Cheng Y, Zabin LS. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4235616/ How does traditional Confucian culture influence adolescents' sexual behavior in three Asian cities?] J Adolesc Health. 2012 Mar;50(3 Suppl):S12-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.002. PMID: 22340851; PMCID: PMC4235616.</ref>

According to City Pass Guide, sexual orientation and gender identity throughout Asia "is a complex terrain from which cultural values, family intradependence, religion, and the tumultuous legacy of colonialism grow and intertwine. As a result, LGBTQ rights vary widely in this part of the world."<ref name=":9">{{News citation|author=John Mark Harrell|newspaper=City Pass Guide|title=PRIDE AND PROMISE FOR VIETNAM’S LGBTQI+ COMMUNITY|url=https://www.citypassguide.com/blog/pride-and-promise-for-vietnams-lgbtqi-community}}</ref>

== LGBT rights in current AES countries ==
The five current AES states are China, Cuba, DPRK, Laos, and Vietnam. As is clarified in the previous sections of this article, each of these countries comes with their own unique histories, experiences with colonization, and their own traditional and modern cultures which all affect their outlook and present status in regard to LGBT rights. Same-sex relations are not illegal in any AES state, nor do any of them criminalize forms of gender expression such as "imitating the opposite sex" in their constitutions.<ref>[https://internap.hrw.org/features/features/lgbt_laws/ “#OUTLAWED: ‘the Love That Dare Not Speak Its Name.’”] [[Human Rights Watch]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220922151200/http://internap.hrw.org/features/features/lgbt_laws/ Archived] 2022-09-30. Accessed 2022-09-30.</ref>

In China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam, there are LGBT advocacy organizations that are working within their countries' legal systems to expand protections of LGBT individuals, increase the quality of healthcare for the LGBT community, and spread increased awareness in society, in a similar fashion to LGBT advocacy groups anywhere else in the world. Individuals from DPRK and individuals who have visited there have stated that LGBT issues are not highly well-known in DPRK, but that LGBT people are not legally persecuted.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":25" /><ref name=":17" /><ref name=":32" /> In a 2017 work regarding human rights in general in DPRK, Kim Ji Ho writes that "Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect" and explains that DPRK focuses on economic development in order to improve and secure human rights.<ref name=":242">{{Citation|author=Kim Ji Ho|year=2017|title=Understanding Korea 9: Human Rights|city=Pyongyang|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House}}</ref>

A 2020 report from China observed that tolerance towards the LGBT community was positively associated with economic growth, and that "a higher level of economic development in provinces was associated with a decrease in discrimination" against LGBT individuals, stating that "every 100 thousand RMB increase in per capita GDP lead to a 6.4% decrease in discriminatory events perpetrated by heterosexuals." The authors observed that reductions in LGBT discrimination and development of the economy are "closely linked" and can be regarded as "harmonious processes."<ref name=":21" />

Currently, Cuba offers the most expansive and explicit legal protections for LGBT rights among the AES countries. Cuba's 2022 amendments to the [[Family Code]] of its constitution offers a high degree of explicit legal protections for LGBT persons and non-traditional family structures. The code guarantees the right of all people to form a family without discrimination, legalizing same sex marriage and allowing same sex couples to adopt children.<ref>[https://peoplesdispatch.org/2022/09/26/cubans-just-ratified-the-worlds-most-progressive-family-code/ “Cubans Just Ratified the World’s Most Progressive Family Code”] Peoples Dispatch. September 26, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220930032053/https://peoplesdispatch.org/2022/09/26/cubans-just-ratified-the-worlds-most-progressive-family-code/ Archived] 2022-09-30.</ref> Additionally, since 2008, gender reassignment surgery and hormone replacement therapy have been available free of charge under Cuba’s national healthcare system.<ref name=":31">''The Independent''. 2018. “Inside Cuba’s LGBT Revolution: How the Island’s Attitudes to Sexuality and Gender Were Transformed,” January 4, 2018. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cuba-lgbt-revolution-gay-lesbian-transgender-rights-havana-raul-castro-a8122591.html</ref>

In general, a trend of increased awareness of LGBT issues in society is progressing in the AES countries, along with an increase in explicit legal protections and improved access to quality healthcare for the LGBT community. In general, many of the social issues faced by the LGBT communities of the AES countries are similar to issues faced by the LGBT communities in other countries in their respective regions. Cuba serves as an example of highly progressive protections for LGBT individuals. In China, Laos, and Vietnam, LGBT advocates are organized and freely seeking expansions of their rights and increased awareness in society, and the expansion of protections in the workplace and improvements in healthcare are increasing. This can be seen in China with the opening of various trans healthcare clinics and with trans people successfully winning lawsuits to prevent workplace discrimination,<ref name=":33" /> in Vietnam with the discussion of Article 37 of the Civil Code and improvements in trans healthcare, and in Laos with the presence elected transgender, lesbian and gay public officials,<ref name=":30" /> the Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy and the government's willingness to work with LGBT rights organizations such as Proud to Be Us Laos and LGBT advocates within the Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union. In DPRK, the human rights focus remains primarily on economic improvements meant to increase the quality of life of all citizens.

=== People's Republic of China ===
Xin Ying, executive director of the Beijing LGBTQ Centre, characterizes the status of LGBT rights in [[People's Republic of China|China]] is quoted in a 2021 article as saying that "China’s situation isn’t the worst in Asia, but it still has room for improvement."<ref name=":2">{{News citation|author=Phoebe Zhang|newspaper=South China Morning Post|title=For LGBTQ people in China the picture is mixed, global report finds, with some legal protections but barriers to freedom of expression|date=2021-12-21|url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/family-relationships/article/3114633/lgbtq-people-china-picture-mixed-global-report-finds}}</ref>

According to a 2018 CGTN article,<ref name=":16">{{Web citation|newspaper=CGTN|title=LGBT in China: Changes and Challenges|date=22-Jan-2018|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/3163444d7a677a6333566d54/index.html}}</ref> "Homosexuality in China has a complex history. Unlike homosexuality in the West where religious attitudes prevailed, homosexuality has long existed in Chinese history and culture and there have been art and literary works about it. Nonetheless, disdain and discrimination have often been the rule, understanding and compassion the exception."

The article quotes Professor Li Yinhe of the Institute of Sociology under the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences as saying:<blockquote>I think the biggest challenge for homosexuals is not about the ban of their activities. Governments don’t do such things any more. Their biggest problem is the deep-rooted culture of oppression in China that over-emphasizes so-called 'family values.' We refer to the phenomena as being family-oriented whereas western countries are more individual-oriented. This means in China, you should always prioritize your family value in life. When there are conflicts between family values and personal joy, personal joy should also give way.<ref name=":16" /></blockquote>
==== Role of NGOs in destabilization efforts in China ====
According to an article entitled "West-backed color revolution a ‘top threat’ to China’s national, political security" appearing in People's Daily, "Experts on international intelligence and security said under the intensifying China-US competition, foreign hostile forces have increased efforts to target the political security of China rather than merely conducting regular espionage activities. [...] Apart from targeting Xinjiang and Hong Kong which are traditional geopolitical hotspots, foreign hostile forces are also keen to use issues like LGBT, feminism and environmentalism which are easy to stir heated discussions on social media via disinformation and rumors to create problems by instigating conflicts between specific groups in China" and continues by saying, "Fortunately, this kind of practice is unable to cause a significant impact or escalate into a massive color revolution, since with the modernization and development of China, the majority of Chinese netizens are able to discuss these issues with a mature and reasonable attitude, and legal civil organizations on LGBT or environment protection will distance themselves from hostile foreign intervention."<ref name=":0" />
==== Legal status of LGBT issues ====
China decriminalized homosexuality in 1997 and officially removed it from the white book of mental disorders, the Chinese Mental Disorder Classification and Diagnosis Standard (CCMD-3) published by China’s Ministry of Health in 2001.<ref>The Diplomat. (2018, June 5). ''China’s Complicated LGBT Movement''. <nowiki>https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/chinas-complicated-lgbt-movement/</nowiki></ref>

Same-sex relationships are legal in China, although same-sex marriage and adoption are not currently legal. Although same-sex marriage is not legal, Chinese LGBT couples have found other ways to gain some legal protection. For example, same-sex couple married overseas can be named as each other’s “legal guardians”, a status considered fairly similar to a civil union.<ref name=":2" />

Transgender individuals are legally allowed to receive healthcare and may legally change their gender marker after receiving sexual reassignment surgery. In recent years, transgender treatment facilities have become more available in China, including the opening of a clinic for the treatment of transgender minors in 2021, where both psychological help and hormone treatment will be available.<ref name=":3">Zhang Wanqing and Li Jiaru. (2021-11-08) "China’s First Clinic for Trans Youth a ‘Good Step,’ Advocates Say." Sixth Tone. URL: https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1008904/chinas-first-clinic-for-trans-youth-a-good-step%2C-advocates-say-</ref>
==== Attitudes toward LGBT community ====
[[File:National Survey Results about LGBT descrimination in China, BMC Public Health 2020.png|thumb|Findings of a BMC Public Health survey about public attitudes toward LGBT people in China, conducted in 2015.<ref name=":21">Wang, Yuanyuan, Zhishan Hu, Ke Peng, Joanne Rechdan, Yuan Yang, Lijuan Wu, Ying Xin, et al. [https://d-nb.info/1214031323/34 “Mapping out a Spectrum of the Chinese Public’s Discrimination toward the LGBT Community: Results from a National Survey.”] ''BMC Public Health'' 20, no. 1 (May 12, 2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08834-y</nowiki>.</ref>]]According to a 2020 report published in BMC Public Health, "Chinese people’s view of the LGBT community is strongly impacted by the distinctive Chinese cultural context. It is likely that LGBT individuals’ experiences pronounced negative feelings, psychological distress and perceive severe discrimination within the traditional Chinese cultural context" and "Although there have been many public policies developed for improving the rights of stigmatized and marginalized LGBT individuals, they still face a great deal of discrimination in various contexts."<ref name=":21" />

From the report's data, collected in 2015, the authors conclude that "a higher level of economic development in provinces was associated with a decrease in discrimination, and we identified that every 100 thousand RMB increase in per capita GDP lead to a 6.4% decrease in discriminatory events perpetrated by heterosexuals." Additionally, "Chinese LGBT groups consistently experience discrimination in various aspects of their daily lives. The prevalence of this discrimination is associated with the economic development of the province in which it occurs."<ref name=":21" />

According to the BMC report:<blockquote>We mapped perceived discrimination against LGBT persons separately for each of the seven environments. As shown in Fig. 1c, of the seven settings, the highest level of self-perceived discrimination was reported for social services (Mean = 57.1, SD = 5.7), and discrimination was higher in the north of China. LGBT participants also reported relatively higher levels of self-perceived discrimination in religious settings, with a mean score of 53.5, with a noticeably high incidence among lesbians living in Hainan (Mean = 70.6) and Xinjiang (Mean = 69.2), and transgender persons living in Gansu (Mean = 68.1). Self-perceived discrimination was generally lower in medical service settings (mean = 36.7, SD =3.8), with the exception of transgender participants, who reported an elevated rate (mean = 39.6, SD = 2.7). In school settings, LGBT participants reported a moderate to high level of discriminatory behaviors by peers or teachers (mean = 52.9, SD =3.9), with a relatively lower level of discrimination found among the lesbian group (mean = 48.9, SD =3.1). LGBT participants reported less attention and biased reporting on their community by Chinese media (mean = 56.3, SD =2.7). In family (mean = 47.5, SD =2.3) and workplace settings (mean = 48.4, SD =3.1), a moderate rate of perceived discrimination was reported by LGBT participants.<ref name=":21" /></blockquote>The report also states that "In terms of heterosexuals’ acceptance towards the LGBT community, heterosexual participants reported a high level of acceptance of social relationships with LGBT individuals, such as having LGBT friends or colleagues. However, heterosexual participants reported that it was hard to accept their own children identifying as LGBT. [...] For member of the Chinese LGBT community, the greatest source of pressure to conform to societal norms of sexuality and identity comes from family members—particularly parents."<ref name=":21" />
==== Status of transgender social issues ====
[[File:Findings of 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University.png|thumb|Some of the findings of the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University, regarding perceived levels of "friendliness" towards trans individuals in different work environments.<ref name=":4">Xin Ying, Qi Ji, Wu Lĳuan, et. al. "2017 Chinese Transgender Population General Survey Report." November 2017. Beijing LGBT Center. URL: https://chinadevelopmentbrief.org/publications/2017-chinese-transgender-population-general-survey-report/ PDF: https://chinadevelopmentbrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2017-Chinese-Transgender-Population-General-Survey-Report.pdf</ref>]]According to the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University,<ref name=":4" /> China's policy and attitude towards transgender people is "improving", citing regulation about transgender SRS in China becoming more friendly in 2017. Among the report's recommendations were to eliminate SRS as a prerequisite for change of gender markers and names on identity documents, a recommendation to add a “third gender” category on official identity documents, to strengthen provisions in existing legislation to prohibit discrimination against transgender people, and to better respect and protect the gender identity and expression of transgender people, de-pathologize transgender people in the mental health system, to advocate for the bodily autonomy of transgender people within the medical system, and include transgender-specific topics in mandatory sex education curricula.

However, although transgender issues in China can be said to be improving, the report also found there are current significant challenges faced by the community, such as unreliable access to healthcare, widespread depression, rejection from family, and disadvantages in employment, issues which are presented in further detail in the report. For example, the report found that most responds thought that the requirements for SRS candidates in various regulations were "unreasonable." Additionally, transgender women reported the highest levels of discomfort in public spaces, with public restrooms causing the highest anxiety among respondents.

Social rejection was included in the study:<blockquote>Nearly 90% of natal families cannot fully accept their transgender children. Of the 835 respondents that reported that they had disclosed their gender identity to their parents or guardians, four times as many respondents said that they had been totally rejected by their parents or guardians (38.9%) than those who said they had been totally accepted (10.9%). Of these, those most likely to experience rejection were transgender women. Nearly half (48.5%)of who totally being rejected by their parents or guardians were transgender women.<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

==== Status of transgender healthcare ====
According to Dr. Pan Bolin of the Department of Transformative Surgery at Peking University Third Hospital, close to 80% of the transgender community require hormone treatment.<ref name=":5">Tong Xiaoyu. Oct 05, 2021. "At This Niche Clinic, No Stares, Smirks, or Stigma." Sixth Tone. URL: https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1008624/at-this-niche-clinic%2C-no-stares%2C-smirks%2C-or-stigma</ref>

According to the 2017 Survey Report on the Survival of the Transgender Community in China, published by the Beijing LGBT Center and the Department of Sociology at Peking University, although 71.2% of respondents who had had SRS did so in a domestic hospital, approximately one in five of these respondents reported experiencing some form of discrimination, invasion of privacy, medical accident, or complications while a patient at a domestic hospital.

Regarding hormone therapy, the report states:<blockquote>Transgender people who reported using or having used hormone therapy in the past reported that the main channel through which they obtained hormone therapy drugs had been through “online pharmacies” (66%) or “obtained from friends” (51%). The most commonly reported method of using the drugs was “independently reading the directions for use or looking for information” (72%) and “consulting the opinions of friends” (66%).</blockquote>The report is intended "to provide government departments, international groups, and non-profit and for-profit organizations with a statistical foundation for an up-to-date understanding of China’s transgender population."<ref name=":4" />

In 2017, the Comprehensive Gender Dysphoria Clinic was opened.<ref name=":5" />

In 2021, The Children’s Hospital of Fudan University opened a clinic serving transgender children and teenagers in Shanghai.<ref name=":6">Cai Wenjun. 2021-11-05. "Nation's first transgender clinic opens in Shanghai." Shine. https://www.shine.cn/news/metro/2111057625/</ref> According to Xin Ying, director of the Beijing LGBT Center, the hospital's move was in line with World Health Organization’s 2019 guidelines on gender-identity related health.<ref name=":3" /> According to an article by Shine, "Professionals will conduct evaluations, diagnoses, psychological treatments and medication" to reduce the negative emotions of transgender minors and help improve their academic performances and family relationships, noting that hospital officials "said the clinic will serve as a bridge to connect transgender children with their families, doctors and society."<ref name=":6" />

According to a Global Times article about the clinic, Luo Feihong, director of the endocrine and genetic metabolic department of the Children's Hospital explained that the professional assessment, diagnosis, psychological treatment and necessary medicine intervention by doctors of multidisciplinary professions are of great help to reduce the negative emotions of transgender children and adolescents. Treatment improves their academic performance, their family relations, and builds a harmonious society.<ref>Nov 04, 2021. "China's first clinic for transgender children and adolescents set up in Shanghai." Global Times. URL: <nowiki>https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1238161.shtml</nowiki></ref>

==== Media ====
The 2021 short documentary film "A Day of Trans" (Chinese: 跨越性别的一天) explores the lived experiences of four Chinese transgender individuals across three generations, exploring their professional career paths, community involvement, social barriers, and their unique approaches to life as transgender individuals across the generations. It is directed by Yennefer Fang, a Chinese transgender independent filmmaker. It follows Liu Peilin, who was born male in 1956 and was raised as a man by a foster family but she always felt like a woman, and started identify as a woman in her 40s. It also follows Mr. C, a 35-year-old transgender man, who became the public face in the fight for job equality in China in 2016 and who won a court case against his employer for discrimination for his gender identity. Finally, it follows two transgender artists who grew up during China's rapid economic growth, who talk about the greater chances they had to express themselves. They work at institutions that offer support to the transgender community. Fang, as a member of the community, said that she tries to observe the status of transgender people from an internal perspective and tries to dispel misconceptions through the documentary, including the perception that "transgenderism" is a contemporary or white, middle-class western term.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lY1L1p29vuc "A Day of Trans 跨越性别的一天"]. Yennefer Fang, Yennefer Fang Studios. YouTube. </ref><ref name=":33">Ji Yuqiao. [https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1239389.shtml “New Documentary ‘a Day of Trans’ Explores Experiences of Three Generations of Chinese Transgender Persons."] Global Times. November 19, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220927204956/https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202111/1239389.shtml Archived] 2022-09-17.</ref>

=== Republic of Cuba ===
[[File:The Conga Against Homophobia and Transphobia, part of the awareness campaign organized by CENESEX.png|thumb|303x303px|The Conga Against Homophobia and Transphobia is held every May in Havana, as part of the awareness campaign organized by CENESEX. The sign reads, "I am part of the Revolution, I too am Fidel."<ref name=":22">Nuria Barbosa León. 2018. “Defending Sexual Diversity.” Granma.cu. December 13, 2018. <nowiki>https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2018-12-13/defending-sexual-diversity</nowiki>.

‌</ref>]]On September 25, 2022 a referendum was held to approve amendments to the Family Code of the Cuban constitution. The referendum passed, legalizing same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption in Cuba, along with other changes such as greater protections provided for children and women's rights, and recognition of diverse family structures and bonds.<ref name=":28">Yeilén Delgado Calvo. [https://www.granma.cu/codigo-de-las-familias/2022-09-26/cuba-dijo-si-al-codigo-de-las-familias “Cuba Dijo Sí.”] [[Granma]]. September 26, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220928124824/https://www.granma.cu/codigo-de-las-familias/2022-09-26/cuba-dijo-si-al-codigo-de-las-familias Archived] 2022-09-28.</ref><ref name=":29">Labrador, Maria. [https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2022-09-22/love-also-generates-kinship “Love Also Generates Kinship.”] Granma. September 22, 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220928125838/https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2022-09-22/love-also-generates-kinship Archived] 2022-09-28.</ref>

In 1979, laws criminalizing gays were eliminated in [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]].<ref>{{Web citation|author=COHA|newspaper=Council on Hemispheric Affairs|title=From Persecution to Acceptance? The History of LGBT Rights in Cuba|date=2012-10-24|url=https://coha.org/from-persecution-to-acceptance-history-of-lgbt-in-cuba/|archive-url=https://archive.is/DsVL0|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1979 the Cuban government finally removed homosexual acts among consenting adults from the Penal Code as a criminal offense.}}</ref> In 1986 the National Commission on Sex Education introduced a program on homosexuality and bisexuality as healthy and positive. Prominent leaders like Cuban president Fidel Castro and Cuban Federation of Women president Vilma Espín began to speak out against anti-gay attitudes.<ref name=":23">Kanowitz, Saul. 2006. “Solidarity Is the Key to Advancing LGBT Rights – Liberation School.” Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a New Generation of Fighters. May 31, 2006. https://www.liberationschool.org/06-05-31-solidarity-is-key-to-advancing-l-html/.

‌</ref> Cuba’s National Center for Sex Education (CENESEX), founded in 1988, "promotes sex education based on a socialist, emancipatory paradigm, recognizing the right to sexuality as inalienable" and is attached to the Ministry of Public Health.<ref name=":22" /> In 1997 all anti-gay references in Cuban laws were eliminated.<ref name=":23" /> The Cuban Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia has taken place annually since 2007.<ref name=":22" />

Since 2008, gender reassignment surgery and hormone replacement therapy have been available free of charge under Cuba’s national healthcare system. In regard to HIV-related issues, condoms are distributed, and sex education and access to antiretroviral drugs have increased.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Lydia Smith|newspaper=The Independent|title=Inside Cuba's LGBT revolution: How the island's attitudes to sexuality and gender were transformed|date=2018-01-04|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cuba-lgbt-revolution-gay-lesbian-transgender-rights-havana-raul-castro-a8122591.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/w9vOD|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09}}</ref>

Historically, discriminatory laws existed for the LGBT community in Cuba, although modern efforts have been made to raise awareness and promote LGBT rights. It should be noted that bourgeois media has repeatedly taken advantage of the real, historical persecution of Cuba's LGBT community as an opportunity for inciting public opinion against Cuba and manufacturing consent for Cuba's destabilization. Meanwhile, the LGBT legal and social situation in Cuba continues to develop through the efforts of the Cuban people themselves, with LGBT rights and protections gradually expanding and being debated as education on the subject is promoted by activists and parts of the government in the context of Cuba's own history and culture.[[File:Conversation on cubadebate.cu about the 2022 family code.png|thumb|Users of cubadebate.cu hold a comment section discussion prior to the referendum about Cuba's Family Code (Código de las Familias), voicing their opinions for and against aspects of the change in law which includes the subject of same-sex marriage and parental rights.<ref>{{News citation|author=Yaima Puig Meneses|newspaper=CubaDebate|title=Código de las Familias: Una ley digna y construida por los cubanos (Family Code: A dignified law built by Cubans)|date=6 junio 2022|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2022/06/06/codigo-de-las-familias-una-ley-digna-y-construida-por-los-cubanos/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802120720/http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2022/06/06/codigo-de-las-familias-una-ley-digna-y-construida-por-los-cubanos/|archive-date=2022-08-02}}</ref>]]

==== 2022 Family Code ====
On September 25, 2022 amendments to the Family Code of the Cuban constitution were passed, legalizing same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption in Cuba, along with other changes such as greater protections provided for children and women's rights and recognition of diverse family structures and bonds.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":29" />

A September 22, 2022 article in [[Granma]], the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the [[Communist Party of Cuba]], described the code prior to its adoption by saying, "For the first time ever, the Family Code recognizes diversity and the value of affection," and continues, "As never before, the Family Code provides the opportunity to strengthen family ties, to access collegiate conflict resolution, to open space for all members of a family to be heard, cared for and respected; it recognizes diversity and the value of affection. Each of the chapters of the Code is a door to inclusion, understanding and, logically, love."<ref name=":29" />

In a July 2022 article, Gay Community News wrote about Cuba's announcement to hold the landmark ‘Family Code’ referendum. The article notes:<blockquote>The consultations showed that approximately 62% of Cuban citizens are in favour of updating the constitution to provide for more inclusive legislation.

Tweeting the news of the assembly’s vote in favour of holding the referendum, Miguel Díaz-Canel, President of Cuba said “The deputies have just approved the #CódigoDeLasFamilias.”

Showing his support for a yes vote he continued “They do well to call it ‘Code of affections’ because it has developed something really new: affection as a legal value.”<ref name=":7">{{News citation|author=Han Tiernan|newspaper=GCN (Gay Community News)|title=Cuba to hold momentous referendum on same-sex marriage|date=25 JULY, 2022|url=https://gcn.ie/cuba-momentous-referendum-same-sex-marriage/}}</ref></blockquote>The article stated that, as well as improving the lives of same-sex couples and their families, the proposed changes to the legislation "would also see greater protections being provided for children as well as guaranteeing improved rights for women" and mentioned that if the referendum were to pass, Cuba would become the eighth country in South America to legalize same-sex marriage.<ref name=":7" />

==== LGBT rights education efforts and CENESEX ====

In regard to Cuba's cultural context as a formerly colonized society with a patriarchal and homophobic influence, a 2020 article on the English version of the CubaDebate website addresses Cuba's past persecution of the LGBT community and its modern efforts to promote education and acceptance about LGBT rights, placing this struggle in the context of global politics:<blockquote>Cuban culture has a strong patriarchal Hispanic-African heritage, with a long homophobic tradition, a model of domination imposed by the Spanish colonial system and its official religion, along with a worldwide scientific approach that stigmatized homosexuality.

When the Revolution triumphed, medical, psychological, social and legal sciences around the world took positions against homosexuality, and considered it an example of illness, insanity, moral decadence and deviation from social norms.

Unfortunately, the permanence of institutionalized homophobia in the first decades of the Revolution has not been analyzed in all its complexity. This situation is exploited by those who only see it as an opportunity to profit from the well-funded market of attacks on Cuba. Given this reality, it is essential that our institutions critically analyze practices that are inconsistent with the humanist spirit of the revolutionary process.<ref name=":15">{{News citation|newspaper=CubaDebate|title=Sexual rights and emancipation in Cuba|date=May 18th, 2020|url=http://en.cubadebate.cu/news/2020/05/18/sexual-rights-and-emancipation-cuba/}}</ref></blockquote>The article goes on to say that the initiative to celebrate the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia, beginning May 17, 2007, has had "significant impact on the mobilization of the Cuban population’s social conscience" and furthermore, since 2008, "we have dedicated the entire month of May to developing educational and communication activities that promote respect for free sexual orientation and gender identities, as an exercise in justice and social equity, under the name of Cuban Days against Homophobia and Transphobia." According to the article, these days are coordinated by CENESEX, through the Ministry of Public Health (Minsap), along with other state institutions, the government, and the support of the Party at all levels. Campaigns have been focused on the family, school, work and, more recently, recognition of all rights for all people, without discrimination due to their sexual orientation or gender identity.<ref name=":15" />

Commenting on the state of the LGBT education campaign and legal status, the article says:<blockquote>In total harmony with these decisions, since 2019, our Constitution textually recognizes sexual and reproductive rights, prohibits discrimination against persons with non-homonormative sexualities, protects family diversity and clearly regulates marriage as a legal institution accessible to all persons without discrimination of any kind.

Of course, we still have a long way to go. That is why we educate for love and respectful coexistence, not for the perpetuation of relationships of domination or violence. We educate in the humanist and democratic principles that are inspired by the emancipatory paradigm of socialism, in freedom as a complex individual and collective responsibility. We will continue working until all justice is achieved.<ref name=":15" /></blockquote>Vázquez Seijido, assistant director of CENESEX, was quoted in a Granma International in a 2018 article as saying:<blockquote>Our institution is very diverse in terms of the activities undertaken. On the one hand, it dedicates important efforts to scientific research in order to obtain the grounds that support undergraduate and postgraduate training processes. We have diploma and masters programs, and we are working on a PhD program. We also teach several short and training courses, which we offer nationally and internationally. We also undertake various actions at the community level, visualized in the four major events held throughout the year, with a vast social and media impact.<ref name=":22" /></blockquote>According to Mariela Castro Espín, Director of the National Sex Education Center (CENESEX), on the topic of homophobia in the cultural and historical context of Cuba and the LGBT education efforts in a 2014 interview:<blockquote>This is a problem the world over. We have inherited a Spanish culture which is strongly patriarchal, homophobic, and highly discriminative. Such a long period of prejudices cannot be eliminated immediately. But, are we going to continue reproducing the oppressive, exploitative past, the past which invents prejudices in order to dominate persons? This is a society in search of socialism; we are fighting to articulate revolutionary ideas which will guarantee a society where the genuine emancipation of human beings is attained.

For that reason, we must go on working, with the support of the media, in different actions which invite reflection. When we talk about an educative strategy, we are talking about education with a bio-ethical viewpoint, which invites dialogue and reflection. We do not want to impose our viewpoints. [...] The most important thing we have achieved is dialogue. The Cuban population is discussing these issues. We receive many letters of thanks, telephone calls, messages on our webpage [...] Many people approach us and tell us very gratifying things, like “now I’m a better person,” “thanks to your work I no longer discriminate against my children,” or “I no longer feel afraid of homosexuality.”<ref>Liberation School. 2014. “Cuba: ‘for Families Free of Homophobia’ – Liberation School.” Liberation School – Revolutionary Marxism for a New Generation of Fighters. August 12, 2014. <nowiki>https://www.liberationschool.org/cuba-for-families-free-of-homophobia/</nowiki>.

‌</ref></blockquote>Liberation News provides a brief overview of Cuba's legal history regarding LGBT matters, saying that in the early years of the revolution, the attitudes and policies in Cuba were similar to the prevailing ideas elsewhere in the world, and that as the revolution developed, "the impact of the international LGBT struggle began to be felt" and was followed by a removal of anti-LGBT laws in 1979, and a growing public awareness and legal protections for the LGBT community.<ref name=":23" />

=== Democratic People's Republic of Korea ===
Information about the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (DPRK) is hampered by a lack of reliable information and a preponderance of deliberate disinformation. A commonly used source of information about DPRK is the testimony of defectors, but the defectors are not necessarily reliable sources for several reasons, such as cash incentives that encourage more sensational testimonies, and the mediation of testimonies through U.S. and South Korean intelligence agencies. In an article of the South Korean publication [[Hankyoreh]], an analysis is made of the media situation surrounding DPRK: "Time and time again, conservative outlets and foreign media circulate and reproduce rumors based on questionable sources [...] Notably, retractions and apologies are rarely ever provided when the reports are shown to be false."<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Hankyoreh|title=[News analysis] The insidious threat of fake news surrounding North Korea|date=May.5,2020|url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_northkorea/943697.html}}</ref> It is important to keep in mind this situation when seeking information about DPRK. Due to the lack of information and the questionability of information about DPRK, an analysis of LGBT rights in the country will be generally permeated with these problems.

==== LGBT legal situation ====
The Constitution of North Korea does not explicitly address discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.

Homosexuality and transgender issues are not formally addressed in the penal code of DPRK.

[[Dermot Hudson]], who is associated with the [[Korean Friendship Association]], stated in an interview with Vice that "The DPRK has not legalized gay marriage, but it does not have laws prohibiting homosexuality. In the past, DPRK publications have made critical remarks about homosexuality, but it is not seen as a big priority either way."<ref>Angus Blair. [https://www.vice.com/en/article/yvqpk5/an-interview-with-north-koreas-uk-spokesman "An Interview with North Korea’s UK Spokesman."] Vice.com. March 6, 2014.

</ref>

According to the website of [[Young Pioneer Tours]], a tour company that operates in DPRK, "homosexuality is not against the law in North Korea, and people from the LGBT community are more than welcome to travel here – in fact, openly gay tour guides have frequently led tours here without issue. That being said, North Korea is a sexually conservative country, and this applies to sexuality anywhere on the spectrum," adding that "Overt shows of affection by anyone of any sexual orientation tend to be frowned upon" in DPRK.<ref name=":25">[https://www.youngpioneertours.com/lgbt-north-korea/ “Can LGBT People Travel to North Korea? — Young Pioneer Tours.”] 2019. Young Pioneer Tours. May 10, 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/2/https://www.youngpioneertours.com/lgbt-north-korea/ Archive URL].

‌</ref>

A defector named Lee Je-sun, interviewed in 2015, gave an example of a situation in which parents tried to prevent their daughter from being in a lesbian relationship. Although they would try to call the police to break up the relationship, Lee explains that the police have no power to arrest her because homosexuality is not illegal in DPRK. Lee explains that "even if the police wanted to play hardball," the same-sex couple couldn't be arrested, and all the police could do to enforce the parents' wishes was "make them write a letter in which they promise not to cross-dress" after which the daughter would be free to go.<ref name=":17" />

Regarding DPRK's views on human rights in general, the ''Understanding Korea'' by Kim Ji Ho states: <blockquote>The DPRK government will make constant efforts to perfect the system of human rights laws to give fuller play to the advantages of the people-centred socialism of the Korean style, on the basis of the experience and lessons gained in establishing human rights mechanisms so far. It will develop the system of socialist human rights laws by stipulating afresh the omitted parts of the system, amending and supplementing the existing ones and formulating new rights in the direction of raising the effectiveness of human rights legislation to the maximum and fully reflecting the demands of norms of international human rights laws. It will fully reflect the people’s demands and interests in working out human rights laws and encourage them to actively participate in this undertaking. Officials in the legislation of human rights laws will be encouraged to have consultation with the masses, give an ear to their voice and accept their good opinions. The system of petition will be used more effectively so that everyone can present his or her opinion on the work of formulating new human rights laws or amending and supplementing the existing ones. <ref name=":24" /> </blockquote>Regarding prospects for the rights of "special groups", ''Understanding Korea'' states: "Regarding the protection and promotion of the rights of special groups, including children, women, the elderly and people with disabilities, as an important task, the DPRK government is making strenuous efforts for its implementation." Kim Ji Ho also calls attention to the aggressive U.S. and Western policies towards DPRK that aim to stifle and destabilize the country, which causes a great negative impact on the Korean people's ability to enjoy their rights:<blockquote>The economic sanctions and blockade the US, in collusion with its vassal states, has imposed on the DPRK have been unprecedented in their viciousness and tenacity. These moves are aimed, in essence, at isolating and stifling the country and destabilizing it so as to overthrow its system. The moves the US resorts to by enlisting even its vassal states are a crime against human rights and humanity, which check the sovereign state’s right to development and exert a great negative impact on its people’s enjoying of their rights, a crime as serious as wartime genocide.<ref name=":24" /></blockquote>Kim states that DPRK places a focus on economic development as a way of promoting human rights, contrasting it with U.S. and western efforts to stifle and destabilize DPRK by raising concern about "human rights" in DPRK, and states that DPRK "attaches importance to the development of the sectors that are directly linked to improving the people’s living standards, provides the working people with wonderful conditions for labour and material life, and steadily improves the people’s living standards through the expansion of the people-oriented policies of the ruling party and the government." Kim adds that "Despite the continued moves of the US and its followers to isolate and stifle the DPRK, the government advances policies for the protection and promotion of human rights of the people and is making every effort to bring them into effect."<ref name=":24" />

==== LGBT social situation ====
According to various defector testimonies and anecdotal stories of tourists to DPRK, the Western conceptualization of LGBT identities is not widespread in DPRK.<ref name=":19">Oliver Hotham. November 13, 2013. "Being Gay in the DPRK". NK News. URL: https://www.nknews.org/2013/11/being-gay-in-the-dprk/</ref><ref name=":26" /><ref name=":17" /> Although the Western framework of LGBT identity is not widespread in DPRK, defectors who have later encountered the Western conceptualization of LGBT identities have later described themselves or others as being gay, lesbians, or bisexuals, and described gender non-conforming people, as well as describing situational homosexuality in the military.<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":17" /> Accounts of former DPRK citizens as well as of visitors to DPRK have described varying attitudes and levels of awareness about LGBT issues among individual people in DPRK.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":19" /> An article by ''NK News'' states that "Korean culture is traditionally conservative and any displays of open sexuality are frowned upon" and suggests that north Korean attitudes toward homosexuality can be compared to those of south Korea in the recent past.<ref name=":19" />

Jang Yeong-jin (장영진), an openly gay North Korean defector, wrote a semi-autobiographical book titled ''A Mark of Red Honor'' (Korean title: ''붉은 넥타이'') about his experience of defecting due to his unfulfilling relationship with his wife, and his later discovery of and identification with the gay identity after his defection.<ref name=":32">{{Web citation|newspaper=서울신문|title=동성애 탈북자 장영진씨 “북한 떠난 지 25년 만에 짝 찾아 결혼 계획” (Homosexual defector Jang Young-jin "plans to find a mate and marry him after 25 years of leaving North Korea")|date=2021-03-21|url=https://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20210321500086}}</ref> In an interview, he describes how in DPRK he never encountered the concept of homosexuality and sought out doctors to find out why we was not attracted to his wife, but found no conclusive reasons. He also states that homosexual behaviors are common in the military, but that this is more due to the long celibacy policy of the military service, saying "there is almost no awareness of homosexuality in the North" and that "it is very common for men to hug and kiss each other in the military". He adds that "there is no concept of homosexuality, or any problem with it."<ref name=":26">{{Web citation|author=최재봉|newspaper=Hankyoreh|title=탈북자이자 성소수자 작가, 이중의 장벽에 맞서다 (North Korean defector and LGBT writer confronting the double barrier)|date=2015-04-16|url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/book/687207.html}}</ref>

In a panel discussion hosted by [[Nodutdol]], participants of the [[Korea Education and Exposure Program]] (KEEP), who travelled to DPRK with delegations of people of the Korean diaspora, discussed their experiences in north Korea. One panelist stated that two members of their delegation identified as queer and were interested in discussing the topic of queerness and queer politics with north Koreans if they got the chance to, noting that although "queerness" may be regarded as a Western construct, they were still interested in discussing the topic. Toward the end of their trip, they gave their translators a brief glossary of LGBT terminology. They explained, "we created a brief list, a glossary of terms related to LGBT communities, and we just handed it to them. And the following delegation after us, in 2013 I believe--this is what I heard from them--they found out that the interpreters really studied the words, the language exchange that we did, and they integrated these new words into their work." The panelist concluded, "it's not a homophobic country. It's like, we can't make that kind of assumptions, either." Another panelist commented, "We were queer, we were bi-racial, bi-ethnic, you know, and there was this really overwhelming embracing of us as Koreans".<ref>[https://eastisapodcast.libsyn.com/keep-stories-from-north-korea "KEEP: Stories from North Korea."] Panel discussion hosted by Nodutdol. [[The East is a Podcast]], March 7, 2022.</ref>

According to The Korean Friendship Association, quoted in ''NK News'': <blockquote>The Korean Friendship Association, the leading international organization promoting North Korea, insists that even more liberal treatment takes place, claiming that “the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect…Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world.”<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>The ''NK News'' article comments that "North Korean propaganda has referred to homosexuality as something foreign and un-Korean, a product of western imperialism and vice. [...] A cursory look through KCNA archives brings up little mention of homosexuality in the DPRK; any mentions of it are devoted to criticizing either the United States or Japanese imperialism. Homosexuality is often portrayed as a form of imperialist humiliation –in the same category as the sexual enslavement of Korean women during the Japanese occupation." Hazel Smith, described as a "North Korea watcher" at the Wilson Institute, was reported in the article as saying that homosexuality as it is conceived of in the West does not exist conceptually in DPRK. The article also talks about the experiences of gay tourists in DPRK:<blockquote>Simon Cockerell, who runs North Korea travel service Koryo Tours, says he frequently takes gay western tourists to North Korea, and the responses are often surprising.

“When (North Koreans) meet gay tourists (of which there are many) they often think it is quite funny,” he said, “a little bit of a playground attitude, basically.”

“I wouldn’t say I have seen much in the way of homophobia from any North Koreans at all,” Cockerell said. “After all, you may hate that which you don’t understand, but its hard to be anti-something that you have no real conception of at all.”

[...] A gay tourist who has visited the DPRK several times who chose to remain anonymous, told ''NK News'' that during his last visit he had been escorted around the country by two very different tour guides. One, a girl from an elite Pyongyang family, exhibited an awareness of homosexuality and the other, a male who had never left the country, seemed unaware of it even as an idea.

When the tour concluded the source noted that: “the female guide even said something approving of the couple being together, and how nice it was that they had decided to be ‘best friends’ for life”. Not a remarkably progressive statement, certainly, but in a country where homosexuality seems to barely be recognized, this tour guide’s acceptance of a gay couple is certainly noticeable.<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>Young Pioneer Tours answers questions on their website about LGBT travelers to DPRK, saying that, "anything outside heteronormativity" is not something to which people in DPRK are accustomed, and state that the most that a LGBT traveler to DPRK can expect in terms of scrutiny is curiosity about their sexual orientation. However, the tour company also notes that asking people from DPRK questions of a sexual nature may cause offense, and should be avoided. They state that LGBT visitors to DPRK "will be accommodated and made to feel welcome in the country".<ref name=":25" />

A defector named Lee Je-sun, interviewed in 2015, stated that "transgender people do exist in North Korea" but that they do not receive sexual reassignment surgery, noting limitations in the medical infrastructure and the cost of such procedures. Lee also states that while in DPRK, they had never come across the terms "gay" and "lesbian" but that they had noticed people with a "different sexual preference" and said "as long as they were good people, we didn’t have any problem being friends with them regardless of their sexual preference" and also says later in the interview that they had met many lesbians in DPRK and that many of them wore men's clothes, kept their hair short, and "acted like men" and liked to date women. In regard to discrimination, Lee said "people would gossip from time to time because they didn’t have anything else to do in their free time. People didn’t treat them with contempt and the LGBTs were never shunned or excluded from the society" but also notes that same-sex relationships have a "bad reputation" among some people, such as parents who try to prevent their daughters from being in lesbian relationships. Lee remarked on lesbian relationships, saying that "adults used to say that they’re so sweet to their girlfriends. Once you fall in love with them, you’re not likely to be attracted to men again. [...] Parents of girls would do anything to keep their daughters from lesbian girlfriends." Lee mentions that although some parents would try to get legal authorities involved to split up their daughters' same-sex relationships, the police had no legal ability to arrest them for homosexuality, and after writing a letter promising not to cross-dress, they would be free to go.<ref name=":17" />

===== Interview of a defector on LGBT social situation =====
[[File:NK News article about LGBT.png|thumb|774x774px|A screenshot of the interview about LGBT issues in DPRK appearing in NK News.]]
'''''Note:''' There are some apparent editorial comments/questions in parentheses in the original article, and they are preserved here in translation. Additionally, the Korean language often uses gender-neutral pronouns, as well as leaving pronouns out of sentences, although gendered forms of pronouns do exist and may be used. Therefore, the use of pronouns below may be ambiguous or inconsistent with English language conventions.''

In a 2015 Korean-language article titled "Are there gays in North Korea? I asked a North Korean!"<ref name=":17">NK News. 2015-02-08. [https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ "북한에도 게이가 있나요? 북한 사람에게 물어봤습니다!"] ("Are there gays in North Korea? I asked a North Korean!") NK News. [https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ URL]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220803063529/https://kr.nknews.org/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%97%90%EB%8F%84-%EA%B2%8C%EC%9D%B4%EA%B0%80-%EC%9E%88%EB%82%98%EC%9A%94-%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C-%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%97%90%EA%B2%8C-%EB%AC%BC%EC%96%B4%EB%B4%A4%EC%8A%B5%EB%8B%88/ Archive URL]. [https://archive.md/sOwSw Archived English Version].</ref> the following descriptions are given, identified in the article as being provided by Lee Je-sun (이제선), their age stated as "late 20s" and who defected in 2011.

Commenting on their own attitude toward apparently LGBT individuals:<blockquote>Actually, it was in a South Korean school, while listening to a lecture about women's studies, that I learned about LGBT, since in North Korea I never heard anything about the concept of lesbians or gays. While I was listening to that lecture, I started to piece together [...] things I had experienced in North Korea. When I lived in North Korea, I didn't really think anything about them other than thinking of them as unusual people with unusual tastes. That's because whatever someone's sexual orientation may be, if they like people, we can become friends without any issue. People around would talk behind their back, but they were busy earning a living, so it was just the chatter of older ladies in their free time, and it wasn't contempt or exclusion. [...] I believe that understanding, consideration, and social concern for sexual minorities are necessary. </blockquote>On the topic of male homosexuality, the interviewee stated:<blockquote>I have not personally seen gays directly. I've only heard that that kind of behavior comes up a lot in the military, according to what adults said. [...] However, as this could just be an alternative way of relieving the desire for women, it's a bit difficult to conclude that it's gay (homosexuality).</blockquote>Describing an apparently gender non-conforming individual, the interviewee said:<blockquote>When I was younger, I once went on a mobilization out to a rural farming village. In North Korea, each year in autumn the first through third-year high school students are sent out to a farming village for a month in order to provide support. At that time, in a very remote country village, I saw an unusual person.

They definitely looked like a man, but they wore heavy makeup, and every day they would sit on the stepping stones by the stream. I was quite curious, so I asked the townspeople, and they said that the person was a man but they kept on wearing women's clothing and putting on makeup, so their parents--who were in the city--sent them to go live in the village. I would secretly look at this person with my friends. I found them odd but also fascinating.</blockquote>Regarding lesbian relationships, the interviewee stated:<blockquote>I actually saw a lot of lesbians, and even hung out with them. I don't know if it's because I'm a woman, but there were a number of lesbians around. The majority of the lesbians liked wearing mens' clothing. They also would have their hair in a short, sporty style and wear mens' clothing, and would have masculine behaviors. They all liked dating women. According to what adults would say, if a women got involved with one of them, it would be difficult to break up, because it's better than being with a man. They themselves would like it, but the people around them wouldn't. There is also one's social image, and especially the sentiment that one's parents would never give permission.</blockquote>Regarding the disapproving response of parents to lesbian couples, and the attitude of the police:<blockquote>People naturally like talking behind others' backs, don't they? The people around them (the lesbian couple) would guess about things they weren't even doing, which would spread rumors. The lesbian's parents had already given up (?) their daughter, so it didn't matter, but the heterosexual girl's parents' stance was different.

In order to find some way to get their daughter out of it, they even made a report to the police and hit her. However, even though the police went to get the lesbian, there was no law for punishing her. At most, the police could only scold her for public indecency, and as it would also be difficult for them to hold her accountable for a serious offense, they had her write a pledge to not wear men's' clothes again. The important thing is that even though people would laugh or talk about the lesbians, people didn't despise or exclude them.</blockquote>Regarding an apparently gender non-conforming and/or possibly intersex and/or bisexual individual, the interviewee said:<blockquote>There was one unusual person living the next neighborhood over. They were neither a woman nor a man. Thanks to this, the people in that neighborhood were never bored. I didn't know whether I should call them ajimi (big sister?) or uncle, to the point that I would even hesitate because I couldn't distinguish. That person even had a husband and a pair of kids. Even so, they were having an affair with a woman so there was always gossip about them.

This person was masculine to the extent that on first glance, anyone would think they were a man. They had a fuller chest than anyone else, but people took this person to be a man. In North Korea, women can't ride bikes but she alone could ride one.

This was because even the traffic police couldn't distinguish their gender. While they were trying to determine whether they were a woman or a man, they would already have passed by. They also had a good personality and a kind heart, so I liked them a lot. [...]

Whenever I went to my friend's house, they always came there, and they would do all of the house chores that a man does. Of course they maintained a good relationship with their husband and took care of their kids and financial parts, they were responsible for all of these things. Something people were very curious about regarding this person was actually, more so than about them being bisexual, that they earned money well and maintained the house well, maybe they were jealous of her diligence. </blockquote>The interviewee addresses sexual reassignment surgery procedures, speaking on both intersex-related and gender-affirming reassignment surgery:<blockquote>In regards to sex reassignment, rather than by individual inclination, it is handled by the government. For example I have heard that if someone is born and they physically don't have male or female genitalia, in the hospital where they are born, after a consultation is done with their parents, they will perform a sex reassignment surgery. However, I haven't experienced this personally and neither has anyone I know, so this is just hearsay.

I can confidently say that it is completely impossible in North Korea to change sex based on one's own sexual orientation, regardless of physiological issues. That's because medical facilities aren't developed enough, and there aren't wealthy people to pay the huge expenses in order to support their sexual orientation.<ref name=":17" /></blockquote>

==== Unreliability of defector testimonies ====
''See also: [[Library:DPRK Study Guide|DPRK Study Guide]]''

Jiyoung Song, former UN Consultant for the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights who has interviewed North Korean defectors since 1999, wrote in a 2015 article for the Asia and Pacific Policy Society, that "numerous" testimonies by North Korean defectors "are later found unreliable" and that there is "a fundamental question about heavily relying on defectors’ testimonies as credible evidence" adding, "there are issues with the current methodologies used in investigating North Korean human rights and serious ethical dilemmas many researchers have to deal with."<ref name=":18">{{Web citation|author=Jiyoung Song|newspaper=Asia and the Pacific Policy Society|title=Unreliable witnesses: The challenge of separating truth from fiction when it comes to North Korea|date=2015-08-02|url=https://www.policyforum.net/unreliable-witnesses/}}</ref>

Among the issues with the current methods of obtaining defector testimonies, Song includes that cash payments have been "standard practice" in the field, paying up to $200 USD per hour as of 2014, and that in South Korea, defectors are paid between $50 to $500 USD per hour, "depending on the quality of information s/he had." Regarding this, Song states that this practice "raises serious questions about the payment as ethical research: What is the impact of payment on interviewees’ stories? How does the payment change the relation between a researcher and an interviewee? The more exclusive stories they have, the higher the fees are." According to Song, "North Korean refugees are well aware of what the interviewer wants to hear" and "The more terrible their stories are, the more attention they receive. The more international invitations they receive, the more cash comes in. It is how the capitalist system works: competition for more tragic and shocking stories."<ref name=":18" />

On her personal experience with interviewing North Korean defectors, former UN Consultant Jiyoung Song states:<blockquote>In my 16 years of studying North Korean refugees, I have experienced numerous inconsistent stories, intentional omission and lies. I have also witnessed some involved in fraud and other illicit activities. In one case the breach of trust was so significant that I could not continue research. It affected my professional capacity to analyse and deliver credible stories in an ethical manner but also had a deep impact on personal trust I invested in the human subjects I sincerely cared about.<ref name=":18" /></blockquote>Song also speaks on the role of intelligence agencies in mediating such testimonies:<blockquote>Behind all these challenges in studying North Korean refugees, there has been a lingering question about the role of the South Korean National Intelligence Service in the making of North Korean defector-activists. The sudden rise and disappearance of certain North Korean defectors, their testimonies before foreign parliaments and the UN or the spread of unverifiable sources of information through major news outlets seem to be facilitated by a combination of various individual and institutional forces.<ref name=":18" /></blockquote>
=== Lao People's Democratic Republic ===
[[File:Proud to Be Us (Laos).png|thumb|A photo from the organization Proud to be Us (Laos), a LGBT civil society organization in Laos.<ref name=":20">{{Web citation|newspaper=Civil Society Laos|title=Proud to Be Us (Laos)|url=https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/proud-to-be-us-laos/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803082338/https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/proud-to-be-us-laos/}}</ref>]]Same-sex sexual activity is legal in [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], and is not believed to have ever been criminalized. Currently, there are no laws prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation, and the national Constitution of Laos does not expressly address sexual orientation or gender identity issues. Regarding citizens' rights in relation to gender, Article 35 states "Lao citizens are all equal before the law irrespective of their gender, social status, education, beliefs and ethnic group" and Article 37 states "Citizens of both genders enjoy equal rights in the political, economic, cultural and social fields and in family affairs."<ref>{{Web citation|author=Translated by Khamphaeng Phochanthilath|newspaper=Constitutions Project|title=Lao People's Democratic Republic's Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2015|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Laos_2015.pdf?lang=en}}</ref>

According to a study by APCOM published in 2020, "LGBTQI people in Laos are living in a relatively tolerant society. While it is observed that the LGBTQI community in Lao can express themselves, there are challenges to being LGBTQI in Lao society. Some of the social, cultural and religious beliefs and norms are connected to LGBTQI people experiencing stigma, discrimination and marginalization." The report notes that although Lao culture is "for the most part" "rather tolerant" of homosexuality, lesbians are particularly misunderstood in Laos.<ref name=":30">[https://www.apcom.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-11-26_Report_APCOM_FinanceInc_LaoPDR_Rev_2-withLogos.pdf "The State of LGBTQI People’s Economic Inclusion: Lao PDR."] APCOM. 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929030759/https://www.apcom.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/2020-11-26_Report_APCOM_FinanceInc_LaoPDR_Rev_2-withLogos.pdf Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

The report also states, "The government is more open to opening and expanding space for civil society organizations to work on LGBTQI issues; there are now elected transgender, lesbian and gay public officials; many LGBTQI people can access information through social media, and more and more people seem to be coming out. On the other hand, there are still many forms of violence and discrimination happening every day to LGBT people in Laos. Society’s structural focus on binary gender norms and the heterosexual unit of the family prevents people from having a better understanding of LGBT issues."

The APCOM study described the most significant forms of LGBT discrimination in Laos as a significant lack of recognition as individuals with aspirations, potential and agency because of traditional societal and family structures, in addition to stigma, discrimination and misunderstanding of LGBTQI identities by society at large, particularly towards lesbians, as well as discrimination in educational institutions and in the workplace and health facilities, and a lack of mechanisms to report violence and discrimination.<ref name=":30" />

The Government of Lao People’s Democratic Republic, health workers, teachers, parents, and community leaders has worked to design programs supported by the The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). The goal is to promote the rights of young people and encourage them to access information, care, and assistance. One example of such activity was a mobile clinic which reached youth, including LGBTQI youth, in remote areas and equipped them with sexual and reproductive health resources.<ref>[https://www.friendsofunfpa.org/unfpa-helps-laotian-lgbtqi-youth-find-peace-purpose-and-community/ “UNFPA Helps Laotian LGBTQI Youth Find Peace, Purpose, and Community.”] Friends of UNFPA. May 19, 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220119132732/https://www.friendsofunfpa.org/unfpa-helps-laotian-lgbtqi-youth-find-peace-purpose-and-community/ Archived] 2022-01-19.</ref>

According to a 2008 U.S. Department of State "Human Rights Report": "Within lowland Lao society, despite wide and growing tolerance of homosexual practices, societal discrimination persisted against such practices. There was no official discrimination against persons with HIV/AIDS, but social discrimination existed. The government actively promoted tolerance of those with HIV/AIDS, and it conducted awareness campaigns to educate the population and promote understanding toward such persons."<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119045.htm "2008 Human Rights Report: Laos."] U.S. Department of State. 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. February 25, 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226175604/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119045.htm Archive] URL.</ref>

==== Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy ====
According to the Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy for 2021-2030, published by the Lao People's Revolutionary Youth Union in August 2021, "Diverse groups of adolescents and youth, such as out of school, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex, and adolescents and youth with disabilities, were consulted" in the strategy formulation process.<ref>[https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/lao_youth_and_adolescent_development_strategy_2021-2030_eng_26nov21-final.pdf "Lao Youth and Adolescent Development Strategy 2021-2030."] The Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union. August 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220430034558/https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/lao_youth_and_adolescent_development_strategy_2021-2030_eng_26nov21-final.pdf Archived] 2022-04-30.</ref> The APCOM study mentions the Lao People’s Democratic Republic National Adolescent and Youth Policy includes affirmative action for vulnerable adolescents and youth which includes LGBTQI people. Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union which is one of the mass youth organizations in Laos and has been lobbying to put emphasis on vulnerable adolescents and youth.<ref name=":30" />

==== Proud to Be Us Laos ====
According to the website Civil Society Laos, the LGBT organization Proud to Be Us Laos (PTBUL) is directed by Anan Bouapha was established in 2012, operates in Vientiane, and has the stated goal to "Support people with sexual and gender diversity (LGBTIQ) to participate in national development affairs and be the spokesperson/representative of people of sexual and gender diversity in the Lao PDR in order to work with the government to address issues related to this community."<ref name=":20" />

According to Bouapha, PTBUL's director, in a 2015 article: "LGBT’ is still abstract terminology, yet to be clearly identified to the eyes and ears of the public." Additionally, Bouapha is quoted as saying that "Many people might think that Laos is conservative and extremely close-minded when it comes to LGBT issues. Realistically, our culture and mentality seem to be quite open-minded to people from all walks of life [...] I have seen many transgender people wearing traditional costumes to temples, attending traditional ceremonies and some gay students expressing his identity among his peers and teachers."<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=J&C Group|title=In Laos, An Invisible Minority Is Finding Its Voice|date=2015-10-20|url=https://jclao.com/in-laos-an-invisible-minority-is-finding-its-voice/}}</ref>

In 2019, members of PTBUL participated in an event for the International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia, which a 2019 UNESCO article states "was a chance for them to show society at home and the international community that LGBTI people in Laos not only exist, but are ready to be seen and heard" and states that with "around 150 participants, mostly Lao government officials, foreign diplomats and members of civil society organizations, it was the biggest IDAHOT celebration to occur in the country to date."<ref>{{Web citation|author=David Young|newspaper=UNESCO|title=Being LGBTI in Laos: Increasing visibility and support of a growing movement|date=29 May 2019|url=https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/being-lgbti-laos-increasing-visibility-and-support-growing-movement}}</ref>

==== Community Health and Inclusion Association (CHIAs) ====
CHIAs is a non profit organization established in 2012, which aims to promote and ensure that empowerment, rights and gender approaches are integrated in all new and revised programmes, policies, and frameworks on health and development that affect the key, vulnerable and marginalized groups. They describe their target group as "Young key, vulnerable population (KVP) who are living and affected by diseases including people Who Use and Inject Drug (PWUD-PWID), LGBTIQ, Sex Workers, Mobile & Migrant including ethnic and disability."<ref>[https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/community-health-and-inclusion-association-chias/ “Community Health and Inclusion Association (CHIAs).”] Lao Civil Society. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929040532/https://www.laocivilsociety.org/en/business/community-health-and-inclusion-association-chias/ Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

==== Health services for LGBTQI people in Laos ====
According to the 2020 APCOM study, when participants were asked about ordinary health services they have access to, the most common answers were sexual health services. Gay male participants reported they had access to HIV tests, sexual transmitted disease (STIs) treatment, primary healthcare. Some of them had access to cosmetic/plastic surgery in [[Thailand]]; Lesbian participants had access to general health care but there is no specific HIV and STIs services; Trans men participants had access to general health care but there is no specific HIV and STIs services; Trans women participants all had access to HIV and STD treatment and general health services. Some of them also undertook plastic surgeries in Thailand. Hormone injections were available in Laos but had not been administered by medical doctors; Bisexuals were able to access HIV treatment, STIs and general health care. All the participants reported dissatisfaction with the medical environment in terms of encountering discriminatory attitudes. Trans women also seem to face higher incidences of discrimination from health service providers. The report recommends that health professionals should receive training on LGBTQI people’s mental and sexual health; and specifically, on mental and sexual health for trans people, including hormonal counselling.<ref name=":30" />

==== Media ====
The 2019 short film "Let's Love" explores the struggles of its main subject, Mai, a lesbian in Laos and her complex relationships with her family, friends and wider society as she navigates her identity.<ref>[http://seajunction.org/lets-love-on-lesbian-invisibility-in-laos-thanita/ “Let’s Love: On Lesbian Invisibility in Laos - SEA Junction.”] SEA Junction. February 21, 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220929025117/http://seajunction.org/lets-love-on-lesbian-invisibility-in-laos-thanita/ Archived] 2022-09-29.</ref>

=== Socialist Republic of Vietnam ===
[[File:PFLAG Vietnam Photo.jpg|thumb|A photo of from the PFLAG Vietnam Facebook Group. PFLAG is an organization for supporting, educating, and advocating for LGBTQ+ people and their families.]]According to a 2022 article by Vietnam Investment Review, "[[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]] has implemented some legislative protections for the LGBTI+ population. In 2014, the new Marriage and Family Law lifted the restriction on same-sex marriage; while Article 37 of the 2015 Civil Code, which went into effect in 2017, permits gender reassignment surgery."<ref name=":12">{{News citation|author=Hue Anh|newspaper=Vietnam Investment Review|title=Vietnamese LGBTI+ people paint their own identities|date=July 06, 2022|url=https://vir.com.vn/vietnamese-lgbti-people-paint-their-own-identities-94707.html}}</ref>

According to an ILGA Asia report from 2021, "In general, there is more social and cultural tolerance toward LGBTIQ people in the larger cities than that in rural areas. Politically, LGBTIQ activists in Vietnam perceived that they can be more focused when they have to deal with only one single party government."<ref name=":14" />

The ILGA report, quoting one of its members, says the following regarding the relationship between activists and the single party government in Vietnam:<blockquote>Lawmakers do not know about LGBTIQ and we [activists] provide them with information. Gradually, this has become a peaceful relationship…. Ministries consulted with us about LGBTIQ related issues and vice versa. I think by acting as government’s ally, we can achieve more …and we tactfully advocate for more “space” for our movements and for other human rights CSOs in Vietnam… A vivid example is that we can prove to the world that parades [VietPride events] can be conducted in this country…. The interesting thing is that in Vietnam, human rights can lean on LGBTIQ rights to sustain, that is totally different in many contexts in the world that I would know.<ref name=":14" /></blockquote>A 2021 article published by [[NonLa Collective]], who describe themselves as a "digital front of Vietnamese communists", speaks on the topic of LGBT issues in Vietnamese politics and history:<blockquote>As we see it, gender and sexuality liberation has a different character in Vietnam as opposed to capitalist countries precisely because of it NOT being driven by economics. We agree [...] that bourgeois-liberal identity politics constitute little more than marketing ploys and cynical co-opting of LGBTQ+ issues.

Vietnam’s traditional culture was quite open in many ways in terms of gender and sexual liberty, especially compared to contemporary cultures. For instance, being gay has ''never'' been criminalized in Vietnam at any point in recorded history, and we have rich traditions such as the Lên đồng, which allowed trans people to live openly in our society.

Prejudices against gay and trans people in Vietnam were heavily exacerbated by foreign influences: first by feudalism, as Neo-Confucianism imposed upon our society the idea that we must be “breeders” (that we are not patriotic or socially subservient if we do not get married and produced children), and next by colonialism, as the French imposed Western prejudices and intolerances on us for many decades.

Therefore, our LGBTQ+ liberation movement has a much different character than Western countries and must be viewed as such. At a grassroots level, Vietnam has native access and traditional experiences to draw from in our struggle for equivalence and liberation in society. We do not have to have access to capitalist wealth and media influence to spread our messaging, as is necessary in capitalist nations (though we do have extremely popular LGBTQ+ celebrities and significant media representation for gay, trans, bisexual, and queer people on national television [...]

With all this being said, we must recognize that LGBTQ+ rights in Vietnam still remain an important issue, and much more progress needs to be made. Fortunately, LGBTQ+ community members have been fighting for our rights publicly, with much more activity ramping up over the last decade. And although we have a long way to go, we still have made achievements which should be recognized, especially in terms of social awareness of LGBTQ+ community, increasing acceptance, and relatively low violence towards LGBTQ+ people compared to most other countries on Earth. In addition, the Ministry of Health has officially announced an intention to provide healthcare services for the LGBTQ+ community in its goals for 2021–2030. [...]

Ultimately, it’s true that our society has many problems when it comes to LGBTQ+ issues. It’s also true that the Vietnamese revolutionary government can and should do more, and more quickly, to address the needs and concerns of LGBTQ+ citizens. But, speaking as LGBTQ+ Vietnamese ourselves, we do not feel as if we need to be “rescued” by foreign-imperialist organizations like USAID, nor do we see how dismantling our revolutionary government would ''help'' our LGBTQ+ movement in any way.<ref name=":27">{{Web citation|author=NonLa Collective|newspaper=Medium|title=Debunking Meo Mun’s Lies About Vietnam|date=November 10, 2021|url=https://nonla.medium.com/debunking-meo-muns-lies-about-vietnam-ddcdccbdcaec|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815041811/https://nonla.medium.com/debunking-meo-muns-lies-about-vietnam-ddcdccbdcaec|archive-date=2022-08-15|retrieved=2022-08-15}}</ref></blockquote>In a 2020 article by the Asahi Shimbun entitled, "Vietnam’s ‘first trans dad’ shows LGBT+ openness and challenges", the birth of a child to a transgender couple "highlighted Vietnam’s position as one of the most progressive countries on LGBT+ rights in Asia" and stated that "Vietnam has quietly become a trailblazer on LGBT+ rights in Asia in recent years, with laws to decriminalize gay marriage and allow same-sex couples to live together, although it stopped short of a full legal recognition of such unions."<ref name=":8">"Vietnam’s ‘first trans dad’ shows LGBT+ openness and challenges" Thomson Reuters Foundation. The Asahi Shimbun. July 3, 2020. URL: https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13512489</ref>

Grete Lochen, Ambassador of Norway to Vietnam has been quoted as saying, “Vietnam has a youthful, diverse, and proud LGBTI+ community with increasing acceptance from society. Being a lesbian myself, I have personally experienced this advancement very clearly. The country can serve as an example of inclusiveness for other nations in the area, albeit considerable work remains.”<ref name=":12" />

In a 2014 article published by Thanh Nien News, it was stated that the law in Vietnam no longer specifically prohibits same-sex marriages, but says they aren't recognized by the government, saying that it does not allow same-sex partnership either, but noted that "the issue has been open for discussion during many house meetings." The article also mentions that a nationwide survey conducted by iSEE in 2013 found that 57 percent of people supported same sex couples to raise children together and 51 percent supported their rights to legally share assets.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Thanh Nien News|title=Vietnam allows surrogacy within families, denies same-sex marriage|date=June 20, 2014|url=http://www.thanhniennews.com/politics/vietnam-allows-surrogacy-within-families-denies-samesex-marriage-27502.html}}</ref>

A 2019 article states that "Quality health care services at the public Binh Dan Hospital in HCM City’s District 3 is now being offered to people in the LGBT community." Nguyen Tan Thu, a doctor specializing in serving LGBT people, said the service at a public hospital was especially important because patients had often complained about discriminatory attitudes at public hospital facilities. To meet the high demand of LGBT individuals, the hospital provides counselling about sexual and reproductive health for them and their relatives. The hospital also provides screening, prevention and treatment for HIV and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as general counselling. They are also provide counselling about hormone therapy before, during and after transition, and receive treatment for complications after transgender surgery. The article says that Binh Dan Hospital is one of several health facilities in the city providing health care services for LGBT people.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Vietnam Plus|title=HCM City: Quality health care services offered for LGBT community|date=January 15, 2019|url=https://en.vietnamplus.vn/hcm-city-quality-health-care-services-offered-for-lgbt-community/145157.vnp}}</ref>

==== Civil Social Organizations ====
Civil Social Organisations (CSO) have "closely been controlled by the single party government in Vietnam," according to a 2021 ILGA Asia report on Vietnam. The main reason is that the government is cautious of CSOs, especially those working on human rights, who may do harm to the Communist party and the government. In the past, CSO "was a very sensitive and contentious term in the government’s official documents." However, at the present time, the government is "more open to CSOs working on health and LGBTIQ matters," and the ILGA report quotes an ILGA member as saying that "Not all CSOs working on human rights will have to face tight control from the government… It depends…. If you are working on human rights related to the environment, land or freedom of speech issues, you will be tightly controlled by the government… If you are working on human rights of women or children, you will be given more space for operation.”<ref name=":14" />

==== Influence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Catholicism ====
According to a 2021 ILGA Asia report, Vietnam is heavily influenced by the Confucian culture originating from China that "strongly supports heterosexual and traditional family models of straight men and women. That, in turn, has had significant influence on social perceptions and attitudes toward LGBTIQ people." Additionally, the report states that Buddhism and Catholicism are the major religions in Vietnam, and notes that "there has been no apparent evidence of stigma and discrimination towards the LGBTIQ community in the country from organized religious groups." Under the observation of the researcher, Buddhist philosophy in Vietnam has peaceful and tolerant approaches in embracing LGBTIQ people. Meanwhile, Catholics in Vietnam are believed to be more conservative about LGBTIQ people, although according to the report they "do not inflict harm on the LGBTIQ movement as a whole."<ref name=":14" />

==== Article 37 of the Civil Code ====
[[File:Many LGBT activists flock to the streets in Hanoi to applaud the new legislation. They raise flags and boards, some of which read “Cam on Quoc hoi” (Thank you, National Assembly). .jpg|thumb|371x371px|LGBT activists gather in Hanoi to applaud the National Assembly's approval of a bill for legal gender change legislation in 2015.]]In 2015, the Vietnamese National Assembly approved a bill to legalize sex reassignment surgery and to introduce the right to legal gender recognition for transgender people who have undergone such surgery.<ref>"Vietnam: Positive Step for Transgender Rights." Human Rights Watch. URL: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/11/30/vietnam-positive-step-transgender-rights</ref> The National Assembly, having agreed in principle that this law should be made in 2015, have since given a mandate to the Ministry of Health to work out the specifics of that law, as well as how it should be implemented.<ref name=":9" />

Regarding the slow progress of the bill, the director of the ICS Center, a nationwide legal advocacy group, stated:<blockquote>“Though the transgender law is still debated within the transgender community, the main reason that hasn’t been passed is because there have been a lot of new laws proposed in the last two years,” says Linh. “At present, the transgender law is not the Health Ministry's priority. The draft bill has been proposed eight times from 2017 until now but it still hasn’t been prioritised, most likely because this law only affects a small minority of the population.”

Despite this challenge, there is a palpable sense of hope and anticipation within the local community that major progress could be made in the next few years. “I don’t think we’ll never be prioritised just because we're a minority,” says Linh. “It just means we need stronger visibility, to raise our voices and express our needs.” [...] “We hope to achieve same sex marriage, hopefully in the next 6 years,” says Linh. “I hope that the transgender law will be resolved sooner, since it’s achieved more progress than the same-sex marriage law.” <ref name=":9" /></blockquote>

==== Transgender community ====
According to a 2012 report on the transgender community in Vietnam by the Institute for Studies of Economy, Society, and Environment (ISEE), In Vietnam, the term “transgender” is relatively new, thus the usage of the term may be tricky. A number of Vietnamese terms are currently used to imply “transgender,” such as “người chuyển giới”,“người xuyên giới” or “người vượt giới.” On the other hand, the term “transsexual” is more or less unanimously understood as people who desire to have their bodies changed or have undergone surgeries for sex change. The report states that in practice, "people usually use the term “người chuyển giới”, which causes confusion in both understanding the actual meaning and the subject being referred to. This is because many transgender people do not completely “switch” to the opposite biological sex. Instead, they often have a sense of a vague gender identity, or may change between forms and genders, depending on specific time and circumstances. These individuals are commonly categorized into two groups, namely Male to Female Transgender (MtF) and Female to Male Transgender (FtM)." MTF transgender people in Ho Chi Minh City often call each other “bóng” (shadow), “bóng lộ” (open shadow). In Hanoi, they often use the word “Tigi” (Vietnamese pronunciation of the acronym TG for transgender). FTM transgender people often refer to others and themselves as “trans” and “trans guy”.<ref name=":13">{{News citation|author=Phạm Quỳnh Phương, Lê Quang Bình, Mai Thanh Tú|newspaper=Institute for Studies of the Economy, Society, and the Environment|title=Aspiration to be Myself: Transgender people in Vietnam: realities and legal aspects|date=2012|url=https://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/images/Ausland/Suedostasien/Transgenders_report.pdf|Publishing location=Hanoi}}</ref>

The 2012 ISEE report states, "It is obvious that the transgender group is one of the most vulnerable and stigmatised in society" and provides several examples of challenges faced by transgender people both worldwide and within Vietnam, listing examples such as prejudiced and inaccurate messages in media, violence, rape, robbery, bullying at school and lack of support from family, and difficulties in finding employment. The report also notes that transgender people in Vietnam "face prejudices also from the gay and lesbian community, who think that transgender people are the reason for social stigmas against the LGBT community as a whole."<ref name=":13" />

Providing examples of problems faced by the transgender community of Vietnam, a 2020 Asashi Shimbun article quotes Mai Như Thiên Ân, a transgender man and founder of the Female-to-Male (FTM) Vietnam Organization:<blockquote>“When trans people go for a checkup at the hospital, they would be denied because their gender on paper doesn’t match their appearance," [...] The biggest problem is health care. Trans people still buy and inject hormones on their own and go to ‘underground’ places for (reassignment) surgery,” said An, 26, who since 2015 has run a Facebook transgender support group with over 5,500 members.<ref name=":8" /></blockquote>

==== Media ====

The director of the ICS center, a legal advocacy group, spoke on LGBT representation in media:<blockquote>“In the past 2-3 years, there has been a lot of LGBTQ representation,” says Linh. “Talk shows and reality shows create a lot of positive influence, although most of them are not perfect, and there are still stereotypes and bias. But it does bring different stories to the general public. That is something we appreciate about the media. And we will need all this visibility and much more in order to pass the transgender law in Vietnam.”<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>The article notes that though stigma and harmful stereotypes certainly remain in pop culture, LGBTQI+ representation seems to be steadily increasing and improving in Vietnam. Citing examples, the article says that in the Spring of 2019, popular TV game show Người Ấy Là Ai featured a young gay male contestant who shared his story on national television. His parents later joined him onstage and talked about how they had come to love, accept, and celebrate their son for who he is, and former Vietnam Idol singer and transgender pop icon, Huong Giang, is also a regular judge on this show, which has subsequently featured a handful of other LGBTQI+ contestants.<ref name=":9" />

In contrast to these recent increases of positive representation in media, a 2012 study on challenges faced by the transgender community in Vietnam, by ISEE, describes the state of LGBT representation in media back in 2012: "Prejudiced and inaccurate messages in the media and telecommunication channels have created and enforced misleading perceptions and social stigmas. Transgender people are described as 'homosexual', 'ridiculous' or 'sick'. They are not even regarded as a community" and adds that "the media often mistakenly regards transgenderism and homosexuality as the same, which causes the homosexual community to distance itself from the transgender community."<ref name=":13" />

As of mid-2022, the Vietnamese LGBT+ YouTube Channel "Come Out - LGBT Việt Nam" had 328.6K subscribers and features interviews of LGBT individuals in Vietnam.

In 2015, a biographical documentary film called ''Finding Phong'' (Vietnamese: ''Đi Tìm Phong'') was released, following the journey of a Vietnamese trans person seeking to transition and receive sexual reassignment surgery. According to VN Express, it was the first independent Vietnamese documentary to be screened in the country's top cinema chains, and Vietnamese film authorities gave it a rating of "suitable for all ages."<ref>{{News citation|author=Dat Nguyen, Bao Ngoc|newspaper=VN Express International|title=Finding Phong finds a paying audience in Vietnam|date=2018-10-31|url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel-life/finding-phong-finds-a-paying-audience-in-vietnam-3831289.html|quote=The applause was not for a sold-out Hollywood blockbuster, a Vietnamese action movie or a tear-jerking romance. This time, the audience was cheering for Finding Phong, the first independent Vietnamese documentary to be screened in the country's top cinema chains.}}</ref>

According to an article titled, "Founding A Community For Transgender Men in Vietnam" from Trans World View, there was "practically no visibility" for transgender men in Vietnam in 2009. However, in that year, "a young transgender man named Nguyễn Thiện Trí Phong, who goes by Aki, began sharing his experience of being transgender through newspapers, television, and other media." This increased visibility helped the community of transgender men in Vietnam become more visible and grow. According to Mai Như Thiên Ân, the founder of FTM Vietnam, "[Before him], if transgender men took hormones, they went ‘stealth’ and tried to live like cisgender men. Young transgender men who were not taking hormones were afraid and said they were lesbians. Aki’s visibility helped create a safe zone." According to the article, the website LesKing also gradually began expanding to include transgender men. In 2011, it featured an article that helped its readers understand the differences between identifying as “SB,” a tom/tomboy (another identity for a masculine woman), and a transgender man. The article states: "it was an “aha” moment for hundreds, if not thousands, of transgender men like Ân who finally felt they had a way to explain their identity."<ref>''Founding A Community For Transgender Men in Vietnam: Interview with Mai Như Thiên Ân, the Founder of FTM Vietnam''. August 20, 2019. URL: https://transworldview.com/ftm-vietnam-founding-a-community-for-transgender-men-in-vietnam/</ref>

== LGBT rights in former AES countries ==

=== Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) ===
After the [[Russian revolution of 1917|October Revolution]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1991)|Russia]] repealed old [[Russian Empire (1721–1917)|tsarist]] laws against homosexuality.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Olga Khoroshilova|newspaper=BBC|title=1917 Russian Revolution: The gay community's brief window of freedom|date=2017-11-09|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41737330|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428130519/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41737330|archive-date=2025-04-28|retrieved=2025-05-16|quote=After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks scrapped and rewrote the country's laws. They produced two Criminal Codes - in 1922 and 1926 - and an article prohibiting gay sex was left off both.}}</ref> The 1922 and 1926 criminal codes of the RSFSR did not mention homosexuality, but some other republics ([[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)|Azerbaijan]], [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)|Georgia]], [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1925–1991)|Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)|Uzbekistan]]) did ban homosexual relationships.<ref>{{Citation|author=Dan Healey|year=2017|title=Masculine Purity and “Gentlemen's Mischief”: Sexual Exchange and Prostitution between Russian Men, 1861-1941|title-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/masculine-purity-and-gentlemens-mischief-sexual-exchange-and-prostitution-between-russian-men-18611941/30CD22517A4CEBE83F7D12C5EF9D910F|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.2307/2697270}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Dan Healey|year=2002|title=Homosexual Existence and Existing Socialism: New Light on the Repression of Male Homosexuality in Stalin's Russia|title-url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/glq/article-abstract/8/3/349/65019/HOMOSEXUAL-EXISTENCE-AND-EXISTING-SOCIALISMNew|publisher=Duke University Press|doi=10.1215/10642684-8-3-349}}</ref> Like most countries at the time, the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|USSR]] considered homosexuality to be a mental disorder but usually used therapeutic or medical treatment instead of legal punishments against gay people. Article 121 of the criminal code prosecuted about 1,000 men each year and was almost only enforced in cases of pedophilia.<ref name=":35">{{Web citation|author=[[Alfonso Casal]]|newspaper=[[The Red Phoenix]]|title=On homosexuality in the USSR|date=2023-05-08|url=https://redphoenixnews.com/2023/05/08/on-homosexuality-in-the-ussr/}}</ref>

=== Mongolian People’s Republic ===
In 1961, under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, consensual same-sex sexual acts were decriminalized. This position remained through the new Criminal Code (2002).<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=ILGA Database|title=Mongolia|date=2025-06-09|url=https://database.ilga.org/mongolia-lgbti|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224083218/https://database.ilga.org/mongolia-lgbti|archive-date=2024-12-24|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1961, under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, consensual same-sex sexual acts were decriminalised. This position remained through the new Criminal Code (2002).}}</ref>

=== People's Socialist Republic of Albania ===
During the communist era of Albania, Article 137 of the 1952 Penal Code, as amended in 1958, preserved the criminalization of sexual intercourse between men that was brought upon by the leadership of Ahmet Zog, though same-sex conduct between females wasn't criminalized as the article only targeted gay men.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Kristina Millona|newspaper=Kosovo 2.0|title=Albania’s communist regime targeted gay men|date=2024-08-10|url=https://kosovotwopointzero.com/en/albanias-communist-regime-targeted-gay-men/|archive-url=https://archive.is/bsYb9|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=During communism, Article 137 of the 1952 Penal Code, as amended in 1958, preserved the criminalization of sexual intercourse between men.}}</ref> Albania legalized homosexuality on paper in 1977, but at the same time prosecuted it through other legal means until the 1990s.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Cäcilia Wosnitzka|newspaper=Copernico|title=A gay 'information office for the Eastern Bloc'?|date=2024-09-18|url=https://www.copernico.eu/en/articles/gay-information-office-eastern-bloc-transnational-activism-and-creation-queer-knowledge-during-cold-war|archive-url=https://archive.is/3Ykn|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Albania legalized homosexuality on paper in 1977, but at the same time prosecuted it through other legal means until the 1990s}}</ref>

=== People's Republic of Bulgaria ===
Bulgaria's first Criminal Code (1896) criminalized sodomy. In 1951, penalties were aggravated to up to three years of imprisonment with the enactment of the new Criminal Code (1951). Though, finally in 1968, Article 420 of the new Criminal Code (1968) repealed the previous Criminal Code and did not incorporate new sodomy provisions, thereby decriminalizing consensual same-sex sexual acts.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=ILGA Database|title=Bulgaria|url=https://database.ilga.org/bulgaria-lgbti|archive-url=https://archive.is/2o95v|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Finally, in 1968, Article 420 of the new Criminal Code (1968) repealed the previous Criminal Code and did not incorporate new sodomy provisions, thereby decriminalising consensual same-sex sexual acts.}}</ref>

=== Czechoslovakia ===
Homosexuality was decriminalized in Czechoslovakia in 1961,<ref>{{Web citation|author=Libor Kukal|newspaper=Radio Prague International|title=Why did Czechoslovakia decriminalise homosexuality relatively early?|date=2023-06-22|url=https://english.radio.cz/why-did-czechoslovakia-decriminalise-homosexuality-relatively-early-8786664|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414193411/https://english.radio.cz/why-did-czechoslovakia-decriminalise-homosexuality-relatively-early-8786664|archive-date=2024-04-14|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Czechoslovakia decriminalised homosexuality in 1961}}</ref> and went into effect on January 1st, 1962.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Equaldex|title=1960s in LGBT Rights|url=https://www.equaldex.com/timeline/1960s|archive-url=https://archive.is/PPG0Z|archive-date=2025-06-09|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=In 1962, provisions against homosexuality were removed from the penal code and homosexuality was decriminalised.}}</ref>

=== German Democratic Republic ===
The German Democratic Republic is widely regarded, even by some liberal anti-communist news outlets<ref>{{Web citation|author=Samuel Huneke|newspaper=The Washington Post|title=Communist states have sometimes been havens for LGBTQ rights|date=2022-02-22|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/22/communist-states-have-sometimes-been-havens-lgbtq-rights/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819143809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2022/03/22/communist-states-have-sometimes-been-havens-lgbtq-rights/|archive-date=2022-08-19|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation|author=Samuel Clowes Huneke|newspaper=Boston Review|title=Gay Liberation Behind the Iron Curtain|date=2019-04-18|url=https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/gay-liberation-behind-iron-curtain/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415104606/https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/gay-liberation-behind-iron-curtain/|archive-date=2025-04-15|retrieved=2025-05-16}}</ref> as the most progressive 20th century socialist state where the subject of LGBT rights was concerned.

The [[German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)|GDR]] officially decriminalized homosexuality in 1968, although gay people had already been exempt from legal prosecution since the 1950s<ref name=":34">{{Web citation|author=Victor Grossman|newspaper=[[Monthly Review]]|title=My seventy years and the departed GDR|date=2022-08-24|url=https://mronline.org/2022/08/24/my-seventy-years-and-the-departed-gdr/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825143732/https://mronline.org/2022/08/24/my-seventy-years-and-the-departed-gdr/|archive-date=2022-08-25|retrieved=2022-08-26}}</ref>. The judge presiding over the decriminalization by law stated:<ref>{{Citation|author=Raelynn J. Hillhouse|year=1990|title=Out of the Closet behind the Wall: Sexual Politics and Social Change in the GDR|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500548|page=588|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.2307/2500548}}</ref>

<blockquote> “Homosexual persons are thus not excluded from the socialist society and civil rights are guaranteed to them as to all other citizens. Their discrimination and moral devaluation is to be rejected accordingly and they are to be protected from all attacks on their integrity (e.g., through defamation, bodily injury, hooliganism) through civil as well as criminal proceedings.” </blockquote>

By 1987, the GDR guaranteed equal rights for LGBT citizens.<ref name=":35" /> The state allowed for transgender people to adopt children and sponsored sex-reassignment surgery for people in adulthood. Notably, after the GDR's illegal annexation by West Germany in 1990, international queer publications suggested that trans rights might be set back by decades.<ref>Sullivan, Louis. Will German Reunification Hurt Transsexual Rights?, FTM Newsletter, June 1990.</ref>

=== Hungarian People's Republic ===
Homosexuality was decriminalized in Hungary in 1961, but until 1978 the age of consent for homosexual sex was 20 as opposed to 14 for heterosexual sex.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Linda Rapp|newspaper=GLBTQ Archive|title=Hungary|url=http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/hungary_S.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250605032429/http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/hungary_S.pdf|archive-date=2025-06-05|retrieved=2025-06-09|quote=Homosexuality was decriminalized in Hungary in 1961, but until 1978 the age of consent for homosexual sex was 20 as opposed to 14 for heterosexual sex.}}</ref>

=== Polish People's Republic ===

=== Socialist Republic of Romania ===

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:LGBT+]]
[[Category:Pages to be protected]]

Israel Defense Forces

2025-06-09T14:38:12Z

37.19.213.10:

[[File:IDF logo.png|thumb|Emblem]]
The "'''Israel" Defense Forces''' ('''IDF'''), also known as the '''"Israel" Occupation Forces''' ('''IOF'''), is a [[Settler colonialism|settler-colonial]] terrorist organization. Along with its predecessor, the [[Haganah]], it is responsible for the ongoing [[Colonialism|colonization]] and [[Palestinian genocide|genocide of Palestinians]]. Military service is mandatory in the [[State of Israel|Zionist Entity]], and people who refuse to join the IOF may spend months in prison.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Lee Camp|newspaper=[[MintPress News]]|title=The One Thing the Israeli Military Is Terrified of|date=2022-09-28|url=https://www.mintpressnews.com/israel-military-terrified-of-conscientious-objectors/282062/|retrieved=2022-10-01}}</ref> The IOF's current Chief of Staff is [[Herzi Halevi]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation|author=Miko Peled|newspaper=[[MintPress News]]|title=Despite What Media Claim, New IDF Chief of Staff Is a Particularly Gruesome War Criminal|date=2022-09-20|url=https://www.mintpressnews.com/new-idf-chief-herzi-halevi-particularly-gruesome-war-criminal/281965/}}</ref>

== War crimes ==
<blockquote>See also: [[Palestinian genocide]]</blockquote>In 2008, the IOF killed close to 1,500 unarmed civilians in [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] during Operation Cast Lead. During an assault on Gaza in 2019, the IOF killed more than twenty people, including several children.<ref name=":0" />

Over 30084 Palestinians have been martyred – including 10000 children, 7000 women, 326 medical staff and 112 journalists – by the IOF since the launch of [[Operation Flood of Al-Aqsa]].<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Palestinian Information Centre|title=Gaza Government Media calls on the World to Intervene to stop the Humanitarian Catastrophe in Gaza|date=2024-01-08|url=https://palinfo.com/news/2024/01/08/871113/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228010707/https://palinfo.com/news/2024/01/08/871113/|archive-date=2024-02-28|retrieved=2024-03-02|quote=قال المكتب الإعلامي الحكومي في غزة، اليوم الإثنين، إنّه ومع مرور (94) يوماً على حرب الإبادة الجماعية، فقد ارتكب خلالها جيش الاحتلال (1,932) مجزرة، راح ضحيتها (30,084) شهيداً ومفقوداً، بينهم (23,084) شهيداً ممن وصلوا إلى المستشفيات، منهم (10,000) شهيد من الأطفال، و(7,000) شهيدة من النساء، و(326) شهداء من الطواقم الطبية، و(45) شهيداً من الدفاع المدني، و(112) شهداء من الصحفيين، مناشدًا العالم التدخل لوقف العدوان وفتح المعابر لإدخال المساعدات الطبية والغذائية وتوفير الوحدات السكنية لأهل غزة.}}</ref> After the IDF withdrew from Gaza on April 7, 2024,<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Al Jazeera|title=Israel ‘pulls out troops’ from southern Gaza as attacks enter seventh month|date=2024-04-07|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/7/israel-pulls-out-troops-from-southern-gaza-as-attacks-enter-seventh-month|retrieved=2024-06-09}}</ref> almost 400 bodies were discovered in mass graves at Nasser hospital. Many of these bodies had signs of torture, some Palestinian civilians had been buried alive, and others executed.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Al Jazeera|title=Evidence of torture as nearly 400 bodies found in Gaza mass graves|date=2024-04-25|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/25/signs-of-torture-as-nearly-400-bodies-found-at-gaza-hospitals-mass-graves|retrieved=2024-06-09}}</ref>

== References ==
[[Category:Imperialist organizations]]
[[Category:Zionism]]