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Japan

2025-01-27T02:12:46Z

75.181.67.163: Added driving on the left for Japan.

{{Infobox country
|name=Japan
|native_name=日本国（にっぽんこく／にほんこく）
|image_coat=Imperial Seal of Japan.svg|capital=Tokyo|largest_city=Tokyo|image_map=Japan map.svg|map_width=260|official_languages=Japanese|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy|mode_of_production=[[Imperialist]] [[Capitalism]]|leader_title1=Emperor|leader_name1=Naruhito|leader_title2=Prime Minister|leader_name2=[[Fumio Kishida]]|area_km2=377,975|population_estimate=125,360,000|population_estimate_year=2021|currency=Japanese yen|drives_on=left|image_flag=Flag of Japan.svg}}
'''Japan''' (日本) is a constitutional monarchy and a liberal democratic island country in [[East Asia]]. Japan spans an archipelago of 6,852 islands; the four main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu.

The first written mention of the archipelago appears in the Chinese chronicle, ''the Book of Han,'' finished in the 2nd century AD. The country was unified in 1603 under the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1931, Japan invaded [[China]], and later in 1937 Japan reignited hostilities, starting [[World War II]]. Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under a seven-year occupation.

Japan is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[OECD]], and the [[Group of Seven]]. It is an ally of the United States, and is also a capitalist country. Japan is a highly economically developed country, but suffers from the wealth inequality inherent in capitalism. Japan also has a problem with ultranationalist groups, one being [[Nippon Kaigi]], of which the previous Prime Minister, [[Shinzo Abe]], was a member.

Despite being a capitalist country and geopolitical US ally, the US still saw them as an economic rival in the 1980s due to their rising economic power, and actively sabotaged their economy.

Japan has not invaded another country since World War II, as their constitution forbids them from doing so. However, their military bases are of vital importance for the US to maintain their hegemony in east Asia. Prime Minister [[Fumio Kishida]] is planning to double Japan's military spending by 2027 to commit acts of aggression against China.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Hannah Middleton|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Australia)|The Guardian]]|title=Japan’s dangerous military expansion|date=2023-02-06|url=https://cpa.org.au/guardian/issue-2039/japans-dangerous-military-expansion/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205132526/https://cpa.org.au/guardian/issue-2039/japans-dangerous-military-expansion/|archive-date=2023-02-05|retrieved=2023-02-12}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Feudal era ===
[[File:Ainu map.png|thumb|Japanese and [[Russian Empire (1721–1917)|Russian]] colonization of the Ainu people from c. 700 to 1945]]
In the sixth century CE, Japan came into contact with China on a large scale, and its culture was deeply influenced by [[Chinese culture]] and entered into [[feudal society]].

Feudal civil wars split Japan apart during the 15th and 16th centuries. Lords (daimyo) hired armies of samurai to fight for them. In the early 17th century, the Tokugawa clan defeated all of its rivals. The Tokugawa shogun became the absolute ruler of Japan and reduced the emperor to a figurehead. The [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] also banned guns and foreign books and restricted trade to a single port. Many former samurai became farmers or merchants, and capitalism began to develop.<ref name=":0222">{{Citation|author=Neil Faulkner|year=2013|title=A Marxist History of the World: From Neanderthals to Neoliberals|chapter=The Age of Blood and Iron|page=158–159|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedljwr5izotdclz23o3c5p4di4t3ero3ncbfytip55slhiz4otuls?filename=Neil%20Faulkner%20-%20A%20Marxist%20History%20of%20the%20World_%20From%20Neanderthals%20to%20Neoliberals-Pluto%20Press%20%282013%29.pdf|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=9781849648639|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=91CA6C708BFE15444FE27899217FBA8E}}</ref>

=== Meiji Restoration and early empire ===
In 1853, [[United States of America|Statesian]] warships forced their way into Edo Bay, which was called the [[Black Ship Turmoil]] (黒船来航). They signed an unequal treaty with Japan which increased foreign imports to Japan and restricted Japanese exports. Between 1867 and 1869, an alliance of lords overthrew the Tokugawa Shogunate and put emperor [[Meiji]] in power, bringing Japan into capitalism. Using heavy taxes and conscription, they industrialized Japan and reformed its army and navy based on [[British]] and [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German]] forces. Peasants and former samurai frequently rebelled, and Japan began imperialist acts of foreign expansion.<ref name=":0222" />

=== Early expansion ===
In 1894, Japan invaded [[Qing dynasty (1636–1912)|China]] and [[Korea]] and started the [[Sino-Japanese War]]. The Qing army was defeated and signed the unequal Treaty of Shimonoseki, which required China to cede [[Taiwan Province|Taiwan]] and some other islands to Japan. In 1904, war broke out between two imperialist countries, Japan and [[Russian Empire (1721–1917)|Russia]]. Most of the battles of this war were fought on the territory of China and Korea. Japan eventually won the war.

=== Second World War ===
The 14-year Chinese war of resistance against Japanese aggression began on 18 September 1931 with the Japanese invasion of [[Manchuria]].<ref>{{Web citation|journalist=You Yang, Shi Xuchen|date=2020-10-15|title=A look back at China's War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression|url=https://news.cgtn.com/news/2020-08-15/A-look-back-at-China-s-War-of-Resistance-Against-Japanese-Aggression-SYEXkRUBIQ/index.html|newspaper=CGTN}}</ref>

The Japanese invasion united the [[Communist Party of China]] with the [[Kuomintang]], and on July 7, 1937 the Japanese army, claiming that its soldiers had wandered off during maneuvers on Chinese territory, demanded to enter the city of Wanping to search it, and after being refused, launched a heavy attack on the city.

====== Atrocities committed by the Japanese ======
In northeast China, the Japanese Army established the [[Unit 731|731 Biochemical Unit]] to conduct bacteriological and poisonous gas experiments on Chinese people, including exposing living people to -20 degrees Celsius outdoors for several hours before pouring hot boiling water over them. The unit also released plague-infected rats into villages to study the spread of the disease. More than 3,000 victims of live experiments by the unit alone are registered.

In December 1937, the Japanese army carried out a massacre after capturing the Chinese capital [[Nanjing]]. The death toll exceeded 300,000, and China designated December 13 as the National Day of Public Sacrifice. Japanese newspapers openly reported a [[Nanjing Killing Contest|killing contest]] between two Japanese soldiers (Toshiaki Mukai and Takeshi Noda), in which the first one to kill 100 Chinese people won. At the same time, Japan stole ancient Chinese documents and artifacts from Nanjing and sent them to Japan itself. [[John H. D. Rabe]], a member of the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party|Nazi Party]] in Nanjing, relied on his status to shelter, along with other foreigners, 250,000 Chinese from Japanese murder. His diaries reveal Japanese atrocities.

Japan surrendered on 1945 August 9. This decision is often blamed on the [[U.S. bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], but was also influenced by the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet Union]]'s invasion of southern [[Sakhalin]] and preparation to invade [[Hokkaido]].<ref>{{News citation|author=Ward Wilson|newspaper=Foreign Policy|title=The Bomb Didn’t Beat Japan … Stalin Did|date=2013-05-30|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/05/30/the-bomb-didnt-beat-japan-stalin-did/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125175559/https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/05/30/the-bomb-didnt-beat-japan-stalin-did/|archive-date=2022-01-25|retrieved=2022-04-27}}</ref>

=== Postwar history ===
After the war, [[United States imperialism|U.S. imperialists]] made Japan into a puppet state and exempted the Unit 731 war criminals from punishment in order to obtain the experimental data of Unit 731. They installed [[Nobusuke Kishi]], a war criminal who oversaw the occupation of Manchuria, as Japan's new prime minister.<ref>{{Citation|author=Stephen Gowans|year=2018|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom|chapter=The Empire of Japan|page=32|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf|city=Montreal|publisher=Baraka Books|isbn=9781771861427|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref> The CIA interfered in at least five Japanese elections between 1946 and 2000.<ref name=":022222">{{Citation|author=David Vine|year=2020|title=The United States of War|chapter=Normalizing Occupation|page=311–2|city=Oakland|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520972070|lg=http://library.lol/main/191568BFAC73F009132DB00ECD0F0F05}}</ref>

To this day, the Japanese [[Right-wing politics|right wing]] refuses to acknowledge Japan's atrocities in China, and history textbooks make no mention of the [[Nanjing Massacre]]. Japan's Yasukuni Shrine is dedicated mainly to World War II war criminals, and former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has repeatedly visited it, causing national outrage in China and Korea. Abe also passed the Conspiracy bill to criminalize actions against [[United States imperialism#Military bases|U.S. military bases]].<ref>{{Web citation|author=Curry Malott|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Japan’s Conspiracy bill signals new threats to the anti-U.S. base movement|date=2017-07-13|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/japans-conspiracy-bill-signals-new-threats-to-the-anti-u-s-base-movement/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717181646/https://www.liberationnews.org/japans-conspiracy-bill-signals-new-threats-to-the-anti-u-s-base-movement/|archive-date=2022-07-17|retrieved=2022-11-25}}</ref>

== Government ==
Article 9 of the Japanese constitution prevents Japan from having an army, air force, or navy. Since 1952, Japan has used the [[Japanese Self-Defense Forces]] as an extension of the [[police]] and [[prison]] system. The [[Government of the United States of America|U.S. government]] and Prime Minister [[Fumio Kishida]] are trying to remove the article and rearm Japan. The right-wing imperialist [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]], which has ruled almost continually since the 1950s, also supports militarism and rearmament.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Sarah Flounders|newspaper=[[Workers World]]|title=Japan rearms under Washington’s pressure − a wake-up call to the antiwar movement|date=2022-12-28|url=https://www.workers.org/2022/12/68400/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229040859/https://www.workers.org/2022/12/68400/|archive-date=2022-12-29|retrieved=2023-01-02}}</ref>

== Culture ==

=== Art ===

==== Animation ====

Japanese animation is a staple of Japanese popular culture. After the 1960s, Japan has garnered a reputation for the production of Japanese animation; a particular style of Japanese animation is a mix of foreign and Japanese influence, often referred to by foreigners as ''anime.''

The Japanese animation industry was worth 2.4 trillion yen (17.2 billion USD) in 2020.<ref>{{Citation|trans-title=アニメ産業レポート2021|trans-lang=Japanese|title=Anime Industry Report 2021|publisher=[[Association of Japanese Animation]]|quote=Despite the difficulties of the COVID-19 pandemic, the anime industry market grossed 2.4 trillion yen in 2020 (96.5%). When broken down into individual categories, the demand for people to stay at home affected the streaming market, which reached its highest profits ever at 93 billion yen (135.8%), and the international market overtook the domestic market for the first time at 1.2 trillion yen (103.2%)}}</ref>

The Japanese animation industry notoriously exploits workers. Japanese animators are commonly overworked for low wages.<ref>{{Web citation|url=https://www.japan-press.co.jp/2008/2557/labor.html|title=Animation workers seek better working conditions|newspaper=[[Akahata]]|date=2007-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation|url=https://www.cartoonbrew.com/artist-rights/exploitation-in-the-anime-industry-an-entry-level-animator-in-japan-explains-why-she-earned-175-week-202283.html|title=Exploitation In The Anime Industry: An Entry-Level Animator In Japan Explains Why She Earned $175/Week|author=Alex Dudok de Wit|date=2021-02-24-T17:35}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
The dominant religions in Japan are Shinto (the native polytheistic religion of the country) and [[Buddhism]]. Shinto practices are deeply ingrained in Japanese culture. Most Japanese practice both of these religions at the same time. As of 2021, 48.6% of Japanese claim to practice Shinto, 46.4% Buddhism, 1.1% [[Christianity]], and 4% "others." The number of Japanese claiming to follow any religion at all has been declining.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Aaron O'Neill|title=Japan: Religious affiliations in 2021|newspaper=Statistica|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/237609/religions-in-japan/|date=2024-08-30}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Imperialist countries]]
[[Category:Global north]]
[[Category:Asian countries]]
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Japan]]
[[Category:Formerly fascist countries]]

Republic of Ghana (1960–1966)

2025-01-27T01:39:31Z

75.181.67.163: Added the driving side to the socialist republic of Ghana.

{{Infobox country|name=Republic of Ghana|image_flag=Flag of Ghana.png|image_coat=Coat of arms of Ghana.png|capital=Accra|largest_city=capital|mode_of_production=[[Socialism]]|government_type=Unitary one-party presidential republic|year_start=1960|year_end=1966|image_flag2=Flag of Ghana (1964–1966).png|flag_caption=Top: [[Flag of Ghana|Flag]] (1960-1964) Bottom: [[Flag of Ghana|Flag]] (1964–66)|national_motto="Freedom and Justice"|national_anthem="God Bless Our Homeland Ghana"|image_map=Ghana orthographic projection.png|map_width=300|official_languages=[[English]]|demonym=Ghanaian|title_leader=President|year_leader1=1960 - 1966|leader1=[[Kwame Nkrumah]]|title_representative=Speaker of Parliament|year_representative1=1960 - 1965|representative1=[[Joseph Richard Asiedu]]|year_representative2=1965 - 1966|representative2=[[Kofi Asante Ofori-Atta]]|title_deputy=Chief Justice|year_deputy1=1960 - 1963|deputy1=[[Kobina Korsah]]|year_deputy2=1964 - 1966|deputy2=[[Julius Sarkodee-Adoo]]|legislature=[[Parliament of Ghana]]|era=[[Cold War]]|currency=1960-1965: [[Ghanaian pound]] 1965-1966: [[Ghanaian Cedi]]|drives_on=left|p1=[[Dominion of Ghana]]|s1=[[Republic of Ghana]]|flag_p1=Flag of Ghana.png|flag_s1=Flag of Ghana.png}}

The '''First Republic of Ghana''', officially known at the time of its existence as the '''Republic of Ghana''', was a [[socialist state]] in [[West Africa]] from 1960 to 1966 established via popular referendum after the masses voted to end the [[Dominion of Ghana]] by transforming Ghana into a Presidential Republic. In the aftermath of the referendum, former Prime Minister [[Kwame Nkrumah]] would become the first President of Ghana. The Republic of Ghana was the first African nation south of the Sahara to obtain independence, and due to the successes of Nkrumah's socialist policies while in power, Ghana became a model-state for African independence movements and a hub for Pan-African philosophy.

== History ==

=== 1960 constitutional referendum ===
In the aftermath of the 1960 constitutional referendum, the Ghanaian electorate voted 88.47% in favor of the creation of the Republic of Ghana, thus officially abolishing the monarchy.<ref>[https://africanelections.tripod.com/gh.html#1960_Plebiscite African Elections Database]</ref> Prior to this development, Ghana was a formally independent British Dominion and the British Monarchy remained its head of state.

== Government ==

=== Houses of Chiefs ===
For each region of Ghana, leaders of of the country's traditional communities are automatically appointed to a House of Chiefs. Houses of Chiefs are divided into a plethora of Traditional Councils consisting of specific tribes, and act as advisory boards to the government on matters effecting them.<ref name=":0">[https://www.studocu.com/row/document/ghana-institute-of-management-and-public-administration/law/ghana-constitution-1960/5979287 1960 Constitution of Ghana]</ref>

=== Supreme Court ===
The Supreme Court of Ghana was the highest court in the republic, and had original jurisdiction on all matters in which the enactment of policy was considered in excess of the powers granted by the National Assembly of Constitution of Ghana. Judges of the court were appointed by the President and were required to retire upon reaching the age of 65 years.<ref name=":0" />

=== National Assembly ===
The National Assembly was the unicameral legislature of the of Ghana and was elected following the its dissolution by the President if a new assembly wasn't elected within a period of 5 years. The parliament was responsible for electing the President of Ghana and its speaker, who was the presiding officer of the National Assembly. According to the 1960 constitution of Ghana, the National Assembly could consist of no less than 100 delegates.<ref name=":0" /> As a means of eradicating corporate influence in politics, public officials were barred from taking part in business ventures.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|author=Rajiv Ball|year=1997|title=The state and the development of small-scale industry in Ghana since 1945|title-url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/46519174.pdf|publisher=ProQuest}}</ref>

=== President of Ghana ===
The Presidency of Ghana lacked strict term limits as new presidential elections were only required on the event of the President's resignation, death or dissolution of parliament after its 5 year expiration date. As described in the constitution, the President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, has the power to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and can pass/veto legislation.<ref name=":0" />

=== 1964 constitutional amendment ===
In 1964, the constitution was amended through national referendum, declaring the Convention People's Party the sole legal political party in the country and gave the Presidency the power to remove judges from office.<ref>[https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrdppub/2019668335/2019668335.pdf REPORT ON GHANAIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW]</ref> The result of the referendum was a 99.91% approval of the reform by Ghana's electorate.<ref>[https://africanelections.tripod.com/gh.html#1964_Constitutional_Referendum African Elections Database]</ref>

== Administrative divisions ==

== Economy ==

=== Planning ===
The Ghanaian economy under the first republic was transformed from a neo-colonized capitalist structure dependent on colonial powers for capital goods to a semi-industrialized developing economy with increasing self-reliance. Domination of Ghana's manufacturing sectors by State-Owned Enterprises and collectivization of agriculture would reach its peak in 1966 before immediately being dismantled through mass privatization following the overthrow of Nkrumah's government. Development of Ghana's economy was guided by state managed 5-year development plans.<ref name=":1">[https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/L2C_WP18_Ackah-Adjasi-and-Turkson-1.pdf Scoping Study on the Evolution of Industry in Ghana]</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
In 1961, a cooperative society was established to the network of private traders and middlemen who controlled internal marketing. Prior to this development, the Nkrumah government had created the Union of Ghana Farmers' Council (UGFCC) to cover agricultural workers' interests and organize farmers behind the Ghanaian government. As cocoa continued to be the major cash-crop of Ghana and the driving force in its industrialization program, the UGFCC became centered around cocoa growing regions and was made the monopoly buyer of cocoa in the country. During this period cocoa production an unprecedented level of 430 thousand tons despite world cocoa prices plummeting. The decline in global prices led to decreased economic growth in Ghana, resulting in the Ghanaian government requiring that farmers save 10 percent of their earnings in National Development Bonds, which would become redeemable in a decade. In 1963, this policy was replaced with a farmers' income tax charged at a flat rate equal to previous saving deductions. The government also started relying heavily on reserves from the Cocoa Marketing Board to pay for development projects while the producer price of cocoa decreased from 224 to 187 Cedis between 1961 to 1964.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294695970_Cocoa_in_Ghana_Shaping_the_success_of_an_economy Cocoa in Ghana: Shaping the Success of an Economy]</ref>

=== Industry and manufacturing ===
Since rising to power, Nkrumah's government and the ruling [[Convention People's Party]] considered eradicating the neo-colonial trade dependency on Western powers to be its top priority in order for Ghana to have true self-determination. The result of this was the exploitation of Ghana's vast natural resources like cocoa in an effort to fund industrialization projects to boost indigenous manufacturing capacities. Throughout most of the 60s, as the Nkrumah government continued to expand existing industries, build State-Owned Enterprises and joint ventures, as well as nationalize corrupt or failing industries; leading to rapid growth in Ghana's manufacturing sector and growth in state and joint ventures being 250% higher than private companies.<ref name=":1" /> Over time indigenous entrepreneurship became well developed in farming, trading and small industrial sectors; and 'big push' policies implemented by the Convention People's Party proliferated large-scale state industries.

Although the Second Development Plan of 1959 argued that foreign private industrial firms were 'the principal agents of industrialization,' the document also acknowledged potential in developing Ghanaian small scale industries and reserved financial assistance to achieving this end. A government committee was thus created to manage the distribution of £250,000 in financial resources to indigenous small scale manufacturing. The Seven Year Plan of 1963 reaffirmed the state's position by declaring that Ghanaian investors had a role to play in the industrialization of Ghana. As stated:<blockquote>"There is immense scope for small scale Ghanaian industrial establishments supplying many of the vital needs of the economy. Repair and maintenance, food processing and the production of numerous household necessities—all these are fields waiting for the enterprising Ghanaian businessman. Government will intensify its efforts in supplying all the assistance that it can command to any such businessman who comes to it with sound schemes and the ability to implement them"</blockquote>The plan also promised assistance to successful small businessmen as a means of stimulating economic growth. Later that same year, the National Investment Bank (NIB) was created by the National Assembly for the purpose of providing counselling and loans to private and co-operative enterprises to build and assist entrepreneurship. NIB investments reached its peak in 1964 when it distributed over two million in credit to small and large scale industries, however 91% of available loans were given to SOEs. Due to extensive investment in the state, the state's share in overall manufacturing output increased from 12% to 20% in 4 years.

The rise in small-scale industry led to the rise in incomes, however these businesses also failed to supply enough goods to meet demand. Administrative circles believed that this would be remedied through co-operation between the state and foreign private sectors, which was to play the primary role in the development of capital goods production.

Another institution established to reach these development goals was the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), which was charged for the purpose of investigating, formulating and executing projects for developing industries. The IDC operated in both Accra and Tamale, through which small-scale industrial goods gained market exposure. The IDC also helped small-scale industries gain exposure abroad by organizing their participation in expositions, like the the Homecrafts and Hobbies Exposition in London. Although the IDC was very active in marketing Ghanaian companies, the center-piece of its small industry promotion strategy was the Small Loans Scheme. The technical details of this scheme changed over time, however the basic principle of small industry promotion through credit provision remained constant. Through its Small Loans Scheme, the IDC disbursed an average of around £G50,000 a year to small industrial firms. Despite its successes, the IDC was actively criticized by members of the National Assembly for both being underfunded and not reaching its potential lending capacity. Both of which were identified as primary concerns surrounding the inefficiencies of the IDC by government officials.<ref name=":2" />

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==
<references />
[[Category:Former states]]
[[Category:History of Ghana]]