ProleWiki - User contributions [en]

Economics

2023-06-26T01:44:04Z

DanielPuenteNovo: Added the Relevance of Marxism in Non-Marxists economics.

'''Economics''' is a social [[science]] that studies how production, distribution, and consumption are organized. Economic views that connect to [[politics]] form the field of [[political economy]]. Since the beginning of [[capitalism]], various schools of economics have developed, including classical political economy, [[Marxism]], [[Keynesianism]], and [[reactionary]] [[neoclassical economics]].

== Schools ==
=== Mercantilist ===
[[Mercantilism]] was an early stage of bourgeois political economy and of the economic policy of the states in the era of the [[Primitive accumulation of capital|original accumulation of capital]] (15th-18th centuries); it reflected the interests of commercial capital when the latter was still linked to industrial capital.

The mercantilists considered that profit is created in the sphere of circulation and that the wealth of nations is based on money. Hence, the mercantilist policy tended to attract the country as much gold and silver as possible. Mercantilism considered that the source of wealth lies in foreign trade, and since it was the artisans who supplied the goods that were exported, the conclusion was reached that it was essential to promote artisan production. Capitalist production was in its beginnings and the ideas of the mercantilists were conditioned by the level of economic development of that time.

Mercantilism implies a set of economic theories and practices developed during the Modern Age. In this historical context, a significant association was observed between the national states, which sought ways to strengthen their political power, and the bourgeois class, responsible for the development of activities of a commercial nature. This long-term experience was of great importance for the primitive accumulation of capital.<ref name=":1">History of economic thoughts - Luis Perdices de Blas -Editorial Sintesis - <nowiki>ISBN 8497561082</nowiki> </ref>

* [[William Petty]]
* [[John Locke]]
* [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]]
* [[Thomas Mun]]

In his time, the policy of mercantilism was progressive, it contributed to the development of the first large capitalist companies: manufacturing; it facilitated the progress of the productive forces, the victory of capitalism over feudalism. Mercantilism as a current of economic thought of the bourgeoisie is followed by the theory of the physiocrats.

=== Physiocracy ===
Physiocracy as an economic school appeared in the 18th century, as one of the manifestations of enlightened despotism, to which they adhered, opposing mercantilism, arguing that the wealth of nations was not measured by its accumulation in gold and silver, but by land and agricultural development, which provide a surplus between raw materials and what is produced, which would not occur in other activities, such as commerce or industry, which they considered sterile.

For this ideology, human life, both individual and social, should be governed by natural laws, following that order predetermined by a superior divine will, and therefore perfect, and not involve the State in economic life, but instead people should be able to carry out their activity freely ([[laissez faire]]). The role of the state was to ensure the right to education, the peaceful enjoyment of liberties and the carrying out of public works. Within the natural social order, the social class of peasants was the most important, since it was the only one that originated wealth. The taxes levied on rural exploitation were very low.<ref name=":1" />

* [[François Quesnay]]
* Honoré Gabriel Riqueti

The father of classical economics, Adam Smith was greatly influenced by the physiocrats.<ref name=":1" />

=== Classical ===
Classical political economics emerged during the era of [[Bourgeois revolution|bourgeois revolutions]] and discredited the old economic ideas of the [[Feudalism|feudal]] aristocracy. It played a progressive role against feudalism and followed the [[Labor theory of value|labour theory of value]] but included limitations due to its lack of [[historical materialism]]. The classical political economists never questioned the historical origin of [[money]], [[capital]], and [[Commodity|commodities]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation|year=1954|title=Political Economy|chapter=Economic Doctrines of the Capitalist Epoch|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/pe-ch22.htm|section=|mia=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/index.htm}}</ref>

* [[David Ricardo]]
* [[Adam Smith]]

=== Vulgar ===
As the [[class struggle]] intensified, bourgeois economists rejected the scientific aspects of classical economics while upholding its flaws. They replaced the labour theory of value with unscientific theories including the [[utility theory of value]], [[supply and demand]], or production costs. While claiming to defend "freedom of labour," they attacked [[Trade union|trade unions]] and [[Strike action|strikes]]. Vulgar economics became the dominant form of mainstream economics during the 1830s and 1840s.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Frédéric Bastiat]]
* [[Henry Charles Carey]]
* [[John Bates Clark]]
* [[Thomas Malthus]]
* [[Alfred Marshall]]
* [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]

==== Austrian ====
{{Main article|Austrian economics}}
Austrian economics is a form of vulgar bourgeois economics that bases economic laws on [[Idealism|subjective psychology]] instead of [[Materialism|social relations]]. It promotes a [[marginal utility]] theory of value.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Eugen Böhm-Bawerk]]
* [[Carl Menger]]
* [[Friedrich Wieser]]

==== Historical ====
The historical school of economics completely denies the existence of economic laws and instead focuses on separate historical facts and often supports reactionary policies. Many of its followers praised the [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German monarchy]].<ref name=":0" />

* [[Bruno Hildebrand]]
* [[Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher]]
* [[Gustav Schmoller]]

==== Keynesian ====
During the [[Great Depression]], [[John Maynard Keynes]] proposed an idealist explanation for [[unemployment]] and economic crises. Keynes believed the [[state]] should decrease the wages of workers and increase capitalist profits in order to increase employment.<ref name=":0" />

==== Social ====
Unlike the Austrians, the social school of economics deals with social relations between people. It sees these relations as idealistic legal relations instead of material relations and considers capitalist activities to be service to society.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Adolf Ammon]]
* [[Othmar Spann]]
* [[Rudolf Stolzmann]]

=== Petty-bourgeois ===
A [[Petty bourgeoisie|petty-bourgeois]] economic trend began in the early 19th century and criticized capitalism while idealizing the small-scale production of the [[peasantry]] and [[Artisan|artisans]]. These economists promoted [[utopian socialism]] and failed to see the inevitable growth of capitalism and expropriation of the peasantry.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]
* [[Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi]]

=== Marxist ===
[[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] turned [[socialism]] from [[Utopian socialism|utopianism]] into [[Scientific socialism|science]]. They applied [[dialectical materialism]] and improved upon the basis laid by Smith and Ricardo to turn economics into a [[Proletariat|proletarian]] science. Marx and Engles published their discoveries in [[Capital, vol. I (1867)|Capital]], which consisted of three volumes released between 1867 and 1894. They based their analysis on [[Surplus-value|surplus value]] and exposed the fundamental [[contradiction]] between bourgeoisie and proletariat.<ref name=":0" />

==== Relevance in Non-Marxists Economics ====
The contributions to non-Marxist economic thought by the Marxist economic school of thought are innumerable despite the fact that it is considered and labeled by reactionary forces as "heterodox" to try to discredit it, ironically many of the concepts used today by Vulgar Bourgeois Economists have a Marxist origin and essence such as; The business cycle, capital accumulation, oligopoly theory, income distribution, and the very concept of capitalism widely used today. All these are unique and incomparable contributions of Marxism to economic thought, in addition the marxist thought inexorably led to more theoretical contributions to the economy that are used by the large capitalist multinationals and bourgeoise economists such as the Input–output model, linear programming and modern macroeconomics with also the massive use of statistics in science.

== References ==
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Science]]

Oskar Lange

2023-06-26T01:16:53Z

DanielPuenteNovo:

{{Infobox politician|name=Oskar Lange|birth_name=Oskar Ryszard Lange|birth_date=27 July 1904|birth_place=Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Congress Poland|death_date=2 October 1965|death_place=London, United Kingdom|nationality=Polish|political_orientation=Marxism-Leninism|political_party=Polish United Workers' Party|image=File:Oskar Lange 20-65.png}}

'''Oskar Ryszard Lange''' (27 July 1904 – 2 October 1965) was a Polish economist and diplomat. He is best known for advocating the use of market pricing tools in socialist systems and providing a model of market socialism. He responded to the economic calculation problem proposed by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek by claiming that managers in a centrally-planned economy would be able to monitor supply and demand through increases and declines in inventories of goods, and advocated the nationalization of major industries. During his stay in the United States, Lange was an academic teacher and researcher in mathematical economics. Later in socialist Poland, he was a member of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party.

Michał Kalecki

2023-06-26T01:14:31Z

DanielPuenteNovo:

{{Infobox politician|name=Michał Kalecki|birth_name=Michał Kalecki|birth_date=22 June 1899|birth_place=Łódź, Congress Poland|death_date=18 April 1970|death_place=Warsaw, Polish People's Republic|nationality=Polish|political_orientation=Marxism-Leninism
(Neo-Marxism alledgly)|political_party=Polish United Workers' Party|image=File:Michal-Kalecki-1-891x1024.png}}
'''Michał Kalecki''' (Polish pronunciation: [ˈmixaw kaˈlɛt͡skʲi]; 22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish Marxian economist. Over the course of his life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford and Warsaw School of Economics and was an economic advisor to the governments of Poland, France, Cuba, Israel, Mexico and India. He also served as the deputy director of the United Nations Economic Department in New York City.

Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century" and "likely the most original one". It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as John Maynard Keynes before Keynes, but he remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the neo-Marxian (''Monopoly Capital'')<ref>{{Citation|author=Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler|year=2009|title=Capital as power: a study of order and creorder.|chapter=pp. 50–51.|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> and post-Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. Being also a political economist and a person of leftist convictions, Kalecki emphasized the social aspects and consequences of economic policies. <ref>{{Web citation|author=Jan Toporowski|newspaper=World Economics Association Newsletters|title=Michal Kalecki's legacy, an interview with Jan Toporowski Kalecki's legacy.|date=2014-2-1}}</ref>

Kalecki made major theoretical and practical contributions in the areas of the business cycle, growth, full employment, income distribution, the political boom cycle, the oligopolistic economy, and risk. Among his other significant interests were monetary issues, economic development, finance, interest, and inflation. In 1970, Kalecki was nominated for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, but he died the same year.

==References==
<references />

Oskar Lange

2023-06-26T01:11:43Z

DanielPuenteNovo: The whole page.

{{Infobox politician|name=Oskar Lange|birth_name=Oskar Ryszard Lange|birth_date=27 July 1904|birth_place=Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Congress Poland|death_date=2 October 1965|death_place=London, United Kingdom|nationality=Polish|political_orientation=Marxism-Leninism|political_party=Polish United Workers' Party}}

'''Oskar Ryszard Lange''' (27 July 1904 – 2 October 1965) was a Polish economist and diplomat. He is best known for advocating the use of market pricing tools in socialist systems and providing a model of market socialism. He responded to the economic calculation problem proposed by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek by claiming that managers in a centrally-planned economy would be able to monitor supply and demand through increases and declines in inventories of goods, and advocated the nationalization of major industries. During his stay in the United States, Lange was an academic teacher and researcher in mathematical economics. Later in socialist Poland, he was a member of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party.

Paul Sweezy

2023-06-25T21:56:58Z

DanielPuenteNovo: The Whole page.

{{Infobox politician|name=Paul Marlor Sweezy|birth_name=Paul Marlor Sweezy|birth_date=April 10, 1910|birth_place=New York City, New York, U.S.|death_date=February 27, 2004|death_place=Larchmont, New York, U.S.|nationality=American|image=File:PaulSweezy.png}}

'''Paul Marlor Sweezy''' (April 10, 1910 – February 27, 2004) was a Marxist economist, political activist, publisher, and founding editor of the long-running magazine ''Monthly Review''. He is best remembered for his contributions to economic theory as one of the leading Marxian economists of the second half of the 20th century.

Michał Kalecki

2023-06-25T21:54:34Z

DanielPuenteNovo:

{{Infobox politician|name=Michał Kalecki|birth_name=Michał Kalecki|birth_date=22 June 1899|birth_place=Łódź, Congress Poland|death_date=18 April 1970|death_place=Warsaw, Polish People's Republic|image=File:Michal-Kalecki-1-891x1024.png}}
'''Michał Kalecki''' (Polish pronunciation: [ˈmixaw kaˈlɛt͡skʲi]; 22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish Marxian economist. Over the course of his life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford and Warsaw School of Economics and was an economic advisor to the governments of Poland, France, Cuba, Israel, Mexico and India. He also served as the deputy director of the United Nations Economic Department in New York City.

Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century" and "likely the most original one". It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as John Maynard Keynes before Keynes, but he remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the neo-Marxian (''Monopoly Capital'')<ref>{{Citation|author=Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler|year=2009|title=Capital as power: a study of order and creorder.|chapter=pp. 50–51.|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> and post-Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. Being also a political economist and a person of leftist convictions, Kalecki emphasized the social aspects and consequences of economic policies. <ref>{{Web citation|author=Jan Toporowski|newspaper=World Economics Association Newsletters|title=Michal Kalecki's legacy, an interview with Jan Toporowski Kalecki's legacy.|date=2014-2-1}}</ref>

Kalecki made major theoretical and practical contributions in the areas of the business cycle, growth, full employment, income distribution, the political boom cycle, the oligopolistic economy, and risk. Among his other significant interests were monetary issues, economic development, finance, interest, and inflation. In 1970, Kalecki was nominated for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, but he died the same year.

==References==
<references />

Michał Kalecki

2023-06-25T21:51:50Z

DanielPuenteNovo: The whole page.

{{Infobox politician|name=Michał Kalecki|birth_name=Michał Kalecki|birth_date=22 June 1899|birth_place=Łódź, Congress Poland|death_date=18 April 1970|death_place=Warsaw, Polish People's Republic|image=File:Michal-Kalecki-1-891x1024.png}}

'''Michał Kalecki''' (Polish pronunciation: [ˈmixaw kaˈlɛt͡skʲi]; 22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish Marxian economist. Over the course of h

is life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford and Warsaw School of Economics and was an economic advisor to the governments of Poland, France, Cuba, Israel, Mexico and India. He also served as the deputy director of the United Nations Economic Department in New York City.

Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century" and "likely the most original one". It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as John Maynard Keynes before Keynes, but he remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the neo-Marxian (''Monopoly Capital'')<ref>{{Citation|author=Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler|year=2009|title=Capital as power: a study of order and creorder.|chapter=pp. 50–51.|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> and post-Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. Being also a political economist and a person of leftist convictions, Kalecki emphasized the social aspects and consequences of economic policies. <ref>{{Web citation|author=Jan Toporowski|newspaper=World Economics Association Newsletters|title=Michal Kalecki's legacy, an interview with Jan Toporowski Kalecki's legacy.|date=2014-2-1}}</ref>

Kalecki made major theoretical and practical contributions in the areas of the business cycle, growth, full employment, income distribution, the political boom cycle, the oligopolistic economy, and risk. Among his other significant interests were monetary issues, economic development, finance, interest, and inflation. In 1970, Kalecki was nominated for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, but he died the same year.

==References==
<references />

Wassily Leontief

2023-06-25T21:47:34Z

DanielPuenteNovo:

{{Message box
|image = Warning icon.png
|text = This article cites no sources and was directly copied from Wikipedia. Do not take the information presented here uncritically
}}{{Infobox politician|birth_name=Vasily Vasilyevich Leontiev|birth_date=August 5, 1905|birth_place=Munich, German Empire|death_date=February 5, 1999|death_place=New York City, U.S|nationality=Soviet, Russian, American|image=Leontief.png}}'''Wassily Wassilyevich Leontief''' (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Лео́нтьев; August 5, 1905 – February 5, 1999), was a Soviet-American economist known

for his research on input–output analysis and how changes in one economic sector may affect other sectors.

Leontief won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1973, and four of his doctoral students have also been awarded the prize (Paul Samuelson 1970, Robert Solow 1987, Vernon L. Smith 2002, Thomas Schelling 2005).
[[File:Wassily Leontief.jpg|thumb|256x256px]]

== Major contributions ==
Leontief is credited with developing early contributions to input–output analysis and earned the Nobel Prize in Economics for his development of its associated theory. He has also made contributions in other areas of economics, such as international trade where he documented the Leontief paradox. He was also one of the first to establish the composite commodity theorem.

Leontief earned the Nobel Prize in economics for his work on input–output tables. Input–output tables analyze the process by which inputs from one industry produce outputs for consumption or for inputs for another industry. With the input–output table, one can estimate the change in demand for inputs resulting from a change in production of the final good. The analysis assumes that input proportions are fixed; thus the use of input–output analysis is limited to rough approximations rather than prediction. Input–output was novel and inspired large-scale empirical work; in 2010 its iterative method was recognized as an early intellectual precursor to Google's PageRank.

Leontief used input–output analysis to study the characteristics of trade flow between the U.S. and other countries, and found what has been named Leontief's paradox; "this country resorts to foreign trade in order to economize its capital and dispose of its surplus labor, rather than vice versa", i.e., U.S. exports were relatively labor-intensive when compared to U.S. imports. This is the opposite of what one would expect, considering the fact that the U.S.'s comparative advantage was in capital-intensive goods. According to some economists, this paradox has since been explained as due to the fact that when a country produces "more than two goods, the abundance of capital relative to labor does not imply that the capital intensity of its exports should exceed that of imports."

Leontief was also a very strong proponent of the use of quantitative data in the study of economics. Throughout his life Leontief campaigned against "theoretical assumptions and non-observed facts". According to Leontief, too many economists were reluctant to "get their hands dirty" by working with raw empirical facts. To that end, Wassily Leontief did much to make quantitative data more accessible, and more indispensable, to the study of economics.

== Publications ==

* 1925: ''Баланс народного хозяйства СССР.'' ("Balans narodnogo khozyaystva SSSR") in ''Planovoe Khozyaystvo [ru]''; translated into Italian in Spulber N.(Ed.) as "Il Bilancio dell'economia nazionale dell'URSS." in ''La Strategia Sovietica per Sviluppo Economico 1924–1930'', Giulio Einaudi ed., Torino [discussing the Soviet "Balance of the National Economy", 1923–4]
* 1928: ''Die Wirtschaft als Kreislauf'', Tübingen: Mohr: re-published as ''The economy as a circular flow'', pp. 181–212 in: Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Volume 2, Issue 1, June 1991; this translation is abridged to avoid controversial statements.
* 1941: ''Structure of the American Economy, 1919–1929''
* 1953: ''Studies in the Structure of the American Economy''
* 1966: ''Input-Output Economics''
* 1966: ''Essays in Economics''
* 1977: ''Essays in Economics, II''
* 1977: ''The Future of the World Economy''
* 1983: ''Military Spending: Facts and Figures, Worldwide Implications and Future Outlook'' co-authed with F. Duchin.
* 1983: ''The Future of Non-Fuel Minerals in the U. S. And World Economy'' co-authed with J. Koo, S. Nasar and I. Sohn

* 1986: ''The Future Impact of Automation on Workers'' co-authored with F. Duchin

== Awards ==

* 1953: Order of the Cherubim, University of Pisa
* 1962: Dr honoris causa, University of Brussels
* 1967: Dr of the University, University of York
* 1968: Officer of the French Légion d'honneur
* 1970: Bernhard-Harms Prize Economics, West Germany
* 1971: Dr honoris causa, University of Louvain
* 1972: Dr honoris causa, University of Paris (Sorbonne)
* 1973: Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, a.k.a. Nobel Prize in Economics
* 1976: Dr honoris causa, University of Pennsylvania
* 1980: Dr honoris causa, University of Toulouse, France
* 1980: Dr honoris causa, University of Louisville, Kentucky
* 1980: Doctor of Social Sciences, University of Vermont
* 1980: Doctor of Laws, C. W. Post Center, Long Island University
* 1980: Russian-American Hall of Fame
* 1981: Karl Marx University, Budapest, Hungary
* 1984: Order of the Rising Sun, Japan
* 1985: Commandeur, French Order of Arts and Letters
* 1988: Dr honoris causa, Adelphi College
* 1988: Foreign member, USSR Academy of Sciences
* 1989: Society of the Optimate, Italian Cultural Institute, New York
* 1990: Dr honoris causa, University of Córdoba, Spain
* 1991: Takemi Memorial Award, Institute of Seizon & Life Sciences, Japan
* 1995: Harry Edmonds Award for Life Achievement, International House, New York
* 1995: Dr honoris causa, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
* Award of Excellence, The International Center in New York

Leonid Kantorovich

2023-06-25T21:45:12Z

DanielPuenteNovo: References

{{Infobox revolutionary|name=Leonid Kantorovich|birthname=Leonid Vitalyevich Kantorovich|birth_date=19 January 1912|birth_place=Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire|death_date=7 April 1986|death_place=Moscow, RSFSR, Soviet Union|image=File:Leonid_Kantorovich_1975.png}}

'''Leonid Vitalyevich Kantorovich''' (Russian: Леони́д Вита́льевич Канторо́вич,; 19 January 1912 – 7 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975 shared with Tjalling Koopmans.

In 1939 he presented the mathematical method of linear programming, applicable to maximize the effectiveness of economic variables such as productivity, raw materials and work. His theories were used to improve economic planning and resource allocation in the Soviet Union. Later, and independently, similar theories were developed by Koopmans and other economists. <ref>{{Citation|author=Leonid Kantorovich|year=1939|title=Mathematical Methods for Organization and Planning Production (1939)|title-url=http://resistir.info/livros/kantorovich_mathematical_methods.pdf}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

Wassily Leontief

2023-06-25T21:41:28Z

DanielPuenteNovo: Added the Infobox.

{{Message box
|image = Warning icon.png
|text = This article cites no sources and was directly copied from Wikipedia. Do not take the information presented here uncritically
}}
'''Wassily Wassilyevich Leontief''' (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Лео́нтьев; August 5, 1905 – February 5, 1999), was a Soviet-American economist known

{{Infobox politician|birth_name=Vasily Vasilyevich Leontiev|birth_date=August 5, 1905|birth_place=Munich, German Empire|death_date=February 5, 1999|death_place=New York City, U.S|nationality=Soviet, Russian, American|image=Leontief.png}}

for his research on input–output analysis and how changes in one economic sector may affect other sectors.

Leontief won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1973, and four of his doctoral students have also been awarded the prize (Paul Samuelson 1970, Robert Solow 1987, Vernon L. Smith 2002, Thomas Schelling 2005).
[[File:Wassily Leontief.jpg|thumb|256x256px]]

== Major contributions ==
Leontief is credited with developing early contributions to input–output analysis and earned the Nobel Prize in Economics for his development of its associated theory. He has also made contributions in other areas of economics, such as international trade where he documented the Leontief paradox. He was also one of the first to establish the composite commodity theorem.

Leontief earned the Nobel Prize in economics for his work on input–output tables. Input–output tables analyze the process by which inputs from one industry produce outputs for consumption or for inputs for another industry. With the input–output table, one can estimate the change in demand for inputs resulting from a change in production of the final good. The analysis assumes that input proportions are fixed; thus the use of input–output analysis is limited to rough approximations rather than prediction. Input–output was novel and inspired large-scale empirical work; in 2010 its iterative method was recognized as an early intellectual precursor to Google's PageRank.

Leontief used input–output analysis to study the characteristics of trade flow between the U.S. and other countries, and found what has been named Leontief's paradox; "this country resorts to foreign trade in order to economize its capital and dispose of its surplus labor, rather than vice versa", i.e., U.S. exports were relatively labor-intensive when compared to U.S. imports. This is the opposite of what one would expect, considering the fact that the U.S.'s comparative advantage was in capital-intensive goods. According to some economists, this paradox has since been explained as due to the fact that when a country produces "more than two goods, the abundance of capital relative to labor does not imply that the capital intensity of its exports should exceed that of imports."

Leontief was also a very strong proponent of the use of quantitative data in the study of economics. Throughout his life Leontief campaigned against "theoretical assumptions and non-observed facts". According to Leontief, too many economists were reluctant to "get their hands dirty" by working with raw empirical facts. To that end, Wassily Leontief did much to make quantitative data more accessible, and more indispensable, to the study of economics.

== Publications ==

* 1925: ''Баланс народного хозяйства СССР.'' ("Balans narodnogo khozyaystva SSSR") in ''Planovoe Khozyaystvo [ru]''; translated into Italian in Spulber N.(Ed.) as "Il Bilancio dell'economia nazionale dell'URSS." in ''La Strategia Sovietica per Sviluppo Economico 1924–1930'', Giulio Einaudi ed., Torino [discussing the Soviet "Balance of the National Economy", 1923–4]
* 1928: ''Die Wirtschaft als Kreislauf'', Tübingen: Mohr: re-published as ''The economy as a circular flow'', pp. 181–212 in: Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Volume 2, Issue 1, June 1991; this translation is abridged to avoid controversial statements.
* 1941: ''Structure of the American Economy, 1919–1929''
* 1953: ''Studies in the Structure of the American Economy''
* 1966: ''Input-Output Economics''
* 1966: ''Essays in Economics''
* 1977: ''Essays in Economics, II''
* 1977: ''The Future of the World Economy''
* 1983: ''Military Spending: Facts and Figures, Worldwide Implications and Future Outlook'' co-authed with F. Duchin.
* 1983: ''The Future of Non-Fuel Minerals in the U. S. And World Economy'' co-authed with J. Koo, S. Nasar and I. Sohn

* 1986: ''The Future Impact of Automation on Workers'' co-authored with F. Duchin

== Awards ==

* 1953: Order of the Cherubim, University of Pisa
* 1962: Dr honoris causa, University of Brussels
* 1967: Dr of the University, University of York
* 1968: Officer of the French Légion d'honneur
* 1970: Bernhard-Harms Prize Economics, West Germany
* 1971: Dr honoris causa, University of Louvain
* 1972: Dr honoris causa, University of Paris (Sorbonne)
* 1973: Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, a.k.a. Nobel Prize in Economics
* 1976: Dr honoris causa, University of Pennsylvania
* 1980: Dr honoris causa, University of Toulouse, France
* 1980: Dr honoris causa, University of Louisville, Kentucky
* 1980: Doctor of Social Sciences, University of Vermont
* 1980: Doctor of Laws, C. W. Post Center, Long Island University
* 1980: Russian-American Hall of Fame
* 1981: Karl Marx University, Budapest, Hungary
* 1984: Order of the Rising Sun, Japan
* 1985: Commandeur, French Order of Arts and Letters
* 1988: Dr honoris causa, Adelphi College
* 1988: Foreign member, USSR Academy of Sciences
* 1989: Society of the Optimate, Italian Cultural Institute, New York
* 1990: Dr honoris causa, University of Córdoba, Spain
* 1991: Takemi Memorial Award, Institute of Seizon & Life Sciences, Japan
* 1995: Harry Edmonds Award for Life Achievement, International House, New York
* 1995: Dr honoris causa, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
* Award of Excellence, The International Center in New York

Leonid Kantorovich

2023-06-25T21:33:17Z

DanielPuenteNovo: The whole page.

Economics

2023-06-25T11:40:54Z

DanielPuenteNovo: Modifications adherence to other previous economic schools such as mercantilism and physiocracy. I also corrected Petty because he is not considered a classical economist, but rather a precursor.

'''Economics''' is a social [[science]] that studies how production, distribution, and consumption are organized. Economic views that connect to [[politics]] form the field of [[political economy]]. Since the beginning of [[capitalism]], various schools of economics have developed, including classical political economy, [[Marxism]], [[Keynesianism]], and [[reactionary]] [[neoclassical economics]].

== Schools ==
=== Mercantilist ===
Trend of the bourgeois political economy and of the economic policy of the States in the era of the original accumulation of capital (15th-18th centuries); it reflected the interests of commercial capital when the latter was still linked to industrial capital.

The mercantilists considered that profit is created in the sphere of circulation and that the wealth of nations is based on money. Hence, the mercantilist policy tended to attract the country as much gold and silver as possible. Mercantilism considered that the source of wealth lies in foreign trade, and since it was the artisans who supplied the goods that were exported, the conclusion was reached that it was essential to promote artisan production. Capitalist production was in its beginnings and the ideas of the mercantilists were conditioned by the level of economic development of that time.

Mercantilism implies a set of economic theories and practices developed during the Modern Age. In this historical context, a significant association was observed between the national states, which sought ways to strengthen their political power, and the bourgeois class, responsible for the development of activities of a commercial nature. This long-term experience was of great importance for the primitive accumulation of capital. <ref>History of economic thoughts - Luis Perdices de Blas -Editorial Sintesis - <nowiki> ISBN 8497561082</nowiki> </ref>

* [[William Petty]]
* John Locke
* Jean Baptiste Colbert
* Thomas Mun

In his time, the policy of mercantilism was progressive, it contributed to the development of the first large capitalist companies: manufacturing; it facilitated the progress of the productive forces, the victory of capitalism over feudalism. Mercantilism as a current of economic thought of the bourgeoisie is followed by the theory of the physiocrats.

=== Physiocracy ===
Physiocracy as an economic school appeared in the 18th century, as one of the manifestations of enlightened despotism, to which they adhered, opposing mercantilism, arguing that the wealth of nations was not measured by its accumulation in gold and silver, but by land. and agricultural development, which provide a surplus between raw materials and what is produced, which would not occur in other activities, such as commerce or industry, which they considered sterile.

For this ideology, human life, both individual and social, should be governed by natural laws, following that order predetermined by a superior divine will, and therefore perfect, and not involve the State in economic life, but instead people should be able to carry out their activity freely (laissez faire). The role of the state was to ensure the right to education, the peaceful enjoyment of liberties and the carrying out of public works. Within the natural social order, the social class of peasants was the most important, since it was the only one that originated wealth. The taxes levied on rural exploitation were very low. <ref>History of economic thoughts - Luis Perdices de Blas -Editorial Sintesis - <nowiki> ISBN 8497561082</nowiki> </ref>

* * [[François Quesnay]]
* Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Count of Mirabeau

The father of classical economics Adam Smith was greatly influenced by the physiocracy.<ref>History of economic thoughts - Luis Perdices de Blas -Editorial Sintesis - <nowiki> ISBN 8497561082</nowiki> </ref>

=== Classical ===
Classical political economics emerged during the era of [[Bourgeois revolution|bourgeois revolutions]] and discredited the old economic ideas of the [[Feudalism|feudal]] aristocracy. It played a progressive role against feudalism and followed the [[Labor theory of value|labour theory of value]] but included limitations due to its lack of [[historical materialism]]. The classical political economists never questioned the historical origin of [[money]], [[capital]], and [[Commodity|commodities]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation|year=1954|title=Political Economy|chapter=Economic Doctrines of the Capitalist Epoch|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/pe-ch22.htm|section=|mia=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/index.htm}}</ref>

* [[David Ricardo]]
* [[Adam Smith]]
* [[Thomas Malthus]]
* [[John Stuart Mill]]

=== Vulgar ===
As the [[class struggle]] intensified, bourgeois economists rejected the scientific aspects of classical economics while upholding its flaws. They replaced the labour theory of value with unscientific theories including the [[utility theory of value]], [[supply and demand]], or production costs. While claiming to defend "freedom of labour," they attacked [[Trade union|trade unions]] and [[Strike action|strikes]]. Vulgar economics became the dominant form of mainstream economics during the 1830s and 1840s.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Frédéric Bastiat]]
* [[Henry Charles Carey]]
* [[John Bates Clark]]
* [[Thomas Malthus]]
* [[Alfred Marshall]]
* [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]

==== Austrian ====
{{Main article|Austrian economics}}
Austrian economics is a form of vulgar bourgeois economics that bases economic laws on [[Idealism|subjective psychology]] instead of [[Materialism|social relations]]. It promotes a [[marginal utility]] theory of value.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Eugen Böhm-Bawerk]]
* [[Carl Menger]]
* [[Friedrich Wieser]]

==== Historical ====
The historical school of economics completely denies the existence of economic laws and instead focuses on separate historical facts and often supports reactionary policies. Many of its followers praised the [[German Empire (1871–1918)|German monarchy]].<ref name=":0" />

* [[Bruno Hildebrand]]
* [[Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher]]
* [[Gustav Schmoller]]

==== Keynesian ====
During the [[Great Depression]], [[John Maynard Keynes]] proposed an idealist explanation for [[unemployment]] and economic crises. Keynes believed the [[state]] should decrease the wages of workers and increase capitalist profits in order to increase employment.<ref name=":0" />

==== Social ====
Unlike the Austrians, the social school of economics deals with social relations between people. It sees these relations as idealistic legal relations instead of material relations and considers capitalist activities to be service to society.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Adolf Ammon]]
* [[Othmar Spann]]
* [[Rudolf Stolzmann]]

=== Petty-bourgeois ===
A [[Petty bourgeoisie|petty-bourgeois]] economic trend began in the early 19th century and criticized capitalism while idealizing the small-scale production of the [[peasantry]] and [[Artisan|artisans]]. These economists promoted [[utopian socialism]] and failed to see the inevitable growth of capitalism and expropriation of the peasantry.<ref name=":0" />

* [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]
* [[Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi]]

=== Marxist ===
[[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] turned [[socialism]] from [[utopianism]] into [[Scientific socialism|science]]. They applied [[dialectical materialism]] and improved upon the basis laid by Smith and Ricardo to turn economics into a [[Proletariat|proletarian]] science. Marx and Engles published their discoveries in [[Capital, vol. I (1867)|Capital]], which consisted of three volumes released between 1867 and 1894. They based their analysis on [[Surplus-value|surplus value]] and exposed the fundamental [[contradiction]] between bourgeoisie and proletariat.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Science]]

William Petty

2023-06-25T11:09:14Z

DanielPuenteNovo: /* See also */ Just a clarification, I changed from the classical school to precursor

{{Infobox person|name=William Petty|nationality=English|birth_date=26 May 1623|birth_place=Romsey, Hampshire, [[Kingdom of England|England]]|death_date=16 December 1687|death_place=London, England|field=Political economy|image_size=200|image=William Petty.png}}

'''William Petty''' (26 May 1623 – 16 December 1687) was an English [[Political economy|political economist]] and precursor of classical [[political economy]]. Active during the end of [[mercantilism]], he defined the value of [[Commodity|commodities]] based on the [[labour]] they contained.<ref>{{Citation|year=1954|title=Political Economy|chapter=Economic Doctrines of the Capitalist Epoch|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/pe-ch22.htm|section=Bourgeois Classical Political Economy|mia=https://www.marxists.org/subject/economy/authors/pe/index.htm}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[François Quesnay]]
* [[David Ricardo]]
* [[Adam Smith]]

== References ==
[[Category:Political economists]]
[[Category:Classical economists]]

Republic of Cuba

2023-05-26T03:02:16Z

DanielPuenteNovo: /* Politics */

{{Infobox country
| name = Republic of Cuba
| native_name = República de Cuba
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Cuba.svg
| image_flag = Flag of Cuba.svg
| image_map = Orthographic map of Cuba.svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = [[Havana]]
| largest_city = capital
|mode_of_production=[[Socialism]]| government_type = [[Marxist-Leninist]] [[socialist state]]
| established_event1 = Victory of the [[Cuban Revolution]]
| established_date1 = 1 January 1959
| population_estimate = 11,193,470
| population_estimate_year = 2019
| leader_title1 = First Secretary, President
| leader_name1 = [[Miguel Díaz-Canel]]
| leader_title2 = President of National Assembly of People's Power
| leader_name2 = Esteban Lazo Hernández
| leader_title3 = President of Council of Ministers
| leader_name3 = Manuel Marrero Cruz}}
'''Cuba''', officially the '''Republic of Cuba'''<ref group="lower-alpha">Spanish: República de Cuba</ref> is a country in North America comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. It is led by the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] (PCC).

The Republic of Cuba is one of only five [[Socialism|socialist]] states in the world today (alongside [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea|People's Korea]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]]). It began as a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style planned economy, but after the [[overthrow of the Soviet Union]] and subsequent loss of influence of the socialist bloc, Cuba became more vulnerable to the [[United States of America|United States]] [[United States embargo against Cuba|embargo against them]] and dependent of foreign trade and capital. Since then, they have been promoting extensive market reforms.<ref>{{Citation|author=[[Communist Party of Cuba]]|year=1997|title=Economical resolution of the 5th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba|pdf=https://www.pcc.cu/sites/default/files/tesis-resoluciones/2020-07/resolucion_economica_v_congreso.pdf|trans-title=Resolución económica V Congreso del Partido Comunista de Cuba|trans-lang=Spanish}}</ref>

Cuban healthcare is widely renowned throughout the world, achieving success in virtually every critical area of public health and medicine.<ref>Carol Lynn Esposito (2018). ''Against all odds: Cuba achieves healthcare for all – An analysis of Cuban healthcare.'' The Journal of the New York State Nurses' Association, volume 45, number 1. ([https://www.nysna.org/sites/default/files/attach/1142/2017/08/2017-08-01nysnaJournalv45n1.pdf#page=31 PDF link to journal])</ref> Cuba also promotes a healthcare diplomacy by sending doctors to underdeveloped nations which do not have advanced healthcare systems, as well as impressive innovation in biotechnology and pharmaceuticals.<ref>John M. Kirk (2015). ''Healthcare without borders: Understanding Cuban medical internationalism.'' University Press of Florida. ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=0F7B2ED4B81FB72B92FC080A9B28365A Library Genesis link])</ref><ref name=":3">World Health Organization (2015). ''[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/mtct-hiv-cuba/en/ WHO validates elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis in Cuba]''.
</ref><ref>Alexandra Sifferlin (2014). [https://time.com/3556670/ebola-cuba/ ''Why Cuba is so good at fighting ebola'']. Time Magazine.</ref>

Cuba's exports around $1.21B mainly of rolled tobacco (23.8%), raw sugar (17.5%), nickel mattes (11%) and hard liquor (8.07%) and its main export partners are [[People's Republic of China|China]] (38.2%), [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]] (10.5%), [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]] (5.44%) and [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (5.37%). Cuba imports $5.28B of machinery and appliances (16.7%), electrical machinery and equipment (9.27%) and cereals (7.21%) from Spain (19.2%), China (15%), [[Italian Republic|Italy]] (6.2%) and [[Canada]] (5.4%).<ref name=":4">{{News citation|date=2019|title=Cuba exports, imports and trade partners|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/cub?depthSelector2=HS2Depth|newspaper=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|retrieved=2022-02-09}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~3000 BCE – 1492)===
In 1492, there were three different indigenous peoples on the island: the Tainos, the Ciboneys and the Guanajatabeyes. The best estimates are that there were between 50,000 and 300,000 indigenous peoples at the time.<ref name=":1">Clifford L. Staten (2005). 'Early Cuba: Colonialism, Sugar and Nationalism: Cuba to 1868' in ''The history of Cuba.'' Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403962591 ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=DE11DAA6342FE92307FDE6B81E5FD1CF Library Genesis link])</ref>

The Tainos were the largest indigenous group of the island. They arrived in 1400s from the West Indies, and had 3 [[Class society|class divisions]] between them, chiefs (''caciques''), a small middle class that acted as advisers to the chiefs, and commoners. The Tainos were fishers, hunters and grew fruits, beans, peanuts, corn and cassava. They carved furniture, weaved cotton, baked cassava and used pepper to preserve meat. They used tobacco on religious ceremonies and lived in straw, palm-thatched houses.<ref name=":1" /> After the Spanish occupation, tobacco became an important item for export.<ref>Rex A Hudson (2002). 'Historical setting', in ''Cuba: a country study.'' Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0844410454 ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=142F24F3CC4D8CB7F8D59D5DE4CB87CB Library Genesis link])</ref>

The cave-dwelling Guanajatabeyes were the first indigenous peoples on the island and the smallest in numbers. They were fruit and food gatherers and lived primarily on a sea mollusk diet. The Ciboneys were fishers, hunter-gatherers and also practiced some agriculture, and at some point they became servants of the Tainos.<ref name=":1" />

=== Colonization period (1492–1898) ===
In the next 70 years after Columbus' arrival in 1492, most of the indigenous peoples on the island were killed, largely due to Spanish systematic genocide, but also due to diseases brought by the Spanish, such as smallpox, typhus, influenza and measles.<ref name=":1" /> Spanish colonialism in the Americas was motivated mostly by the Crown's desire for gold, silver and other precious metals. The settlers also had immediate interests for these travels, as they were to receive a share of the exploited value.<ref>Eric Williams (1984). 'Gold and sugar' in ''From Columbus to Castro; The History of the Caribbean, 1492–1969.'' London: A. Deutsch. ISBN 0233000909 ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=C49308A6134FF8E1D444F122DA05CCCF Library Genesis link])</ref> In 1510, Diego Velázquez, one of the richest settlers in Spain, was in charge of colonizing Cuban territory, beginning the conquest with a prolonged reconnaissance and conquest operation, plagued by bloody incidents. To safeguard trade, [[Monarchy of Spain (1516–1700)|Spain]] decided to organize large fleets that would have the port of Havana as an obligatory stopover point, strategically located at the beginning of the Gulf Stream. Its prime exports were coffee, sugar, and tobacco. The Spanish aristocracy imported many African [[Slavery|slaves]] for this colony.

The Taíno leader [[Hatuey]] began a resistance movement against Spain in 1511. The Spanish captured, tortured, and executed him in 1512.<ref name=":92">{{Citation|author=[[Nick Estes]], et al.|year=2021|title=Red Nation Rising|chapter=Anti-Indianism|page=30|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacechp4anuu3vkx7ttze5vwtbbslqpqkouqemkpa5xui27eulvyntx2?filename=Nick%20Estes%2C%20Melanie%20Yazzie%2C%20Jennifer%20Nez%20Denetdale%2C%20David%20Correia%20-%20Red%20Nation%20Rising_%20From%20Bordertown%20Violence%20to%20Native%20Liberation-PM%20Press%20%282021%29.pdf}}</ref>

From 1790 to 1820, more African slaves were introduced into Cuba than in the previous century and a half. With a population that in 1841 already exceeded a million and a half inhabitants, the Island harbored a highly polarized society. Between an oligarchy of Creole landowners and Spanish merchants and the slave masses. Slavery was an important source of social instability, not only because of the frequent rebellion by slaves—both individually and in groups—but also because the repudiation of the said institution gave rise to conspiracies with abolitionist purposes, none of which were indigenous-led.

In the 1810s, Cuban slave owners contacted the U.S. consul and tried to join the [[United States of America|United States]] in order to prevent a revolution like in [[Republic of Haiti|Haiti]].<ref name=":122">{{Citation|author=[[Domenico Losurdo]]|year=2011|title=Liberalism: A Counter-History|chapter=Crisis of the English and American Models|page=152|publisher=Verso|isbn=9781844676934|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=5BB3406BC2E64972831A1C00D5D4BFE4|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacebhsj2yxuoudkhkjp6lzgr5jvgyhu76zxe4gw3d65gpg32a6nded4?filename=Domenico%20Losurdo%2C%20Gregory%20Elliott%20-%20Liberalism_%20A%20Counter-History-Verso%20%282011%29.pdf}}</ref>

Around 1850 the colony received an influx of lower-class Spanish immigrants, but even they were treated poorly by the aristocracy: sixteen or eighteen-hour workdays, seven days a week, were common, and work conditions in the tobacco industry were rife with poor pay, monotony, and health hazards.

After the [[Spanish–American War]], Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris (1898), by which Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Republic of the Philippines|Philippines]], and [[Guam]] to the United States for the sum of US $20 million and Cuba became a protectorate of the United States.

The Popular Socialist Party of Cuba was formed in Havana in 1925. It was later renamed the "Communist Revolutionary Union". In 1961 the party merged into the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI), the precursor of the current [[Communist Party of Cuba]].

===Batista era (1940–1959)===
While the [[reactionary]] right-wing dictatorship of [[Fulgencio Batista]] reign saw relatively high GDP growth, human development indicators portray dismal social conditions, particularly among the rural peasants. Batista's regime left the majority of the Cuban people mired in poverty and illness, reporting a 91% malnutrition rate among agricultural workers.<ref name=":0">Andrea Carter (2013). ''Cuba's food-rationing system and alternatives''. Cornell University. ([https://www.coralgablescavaliers.org/ourpages/users/099346/IB%20History/Americas/Cuba/Cuba_s%20Food%20Rationing.pdf PDF link])</ref> 20,000 Cubans were killed under Batista's dictatorship.<ref>{{News citation|author=Elio Delgado Legon|newspaper=Havana Times|title=Massacres during Batista’s Dictatorship|date=2017-01-26|url=https://havanatimes.org/diaries/elio/massacres-during-batistas-dictatorship/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126194624/https://havanatimes.org/diaries/elio/massacres-during-batistas-dictatorship/|archive-date=2022-01-26|retrieved=2022-04-28}}</ref>

The mortality rates of the general population was usually high. Poor hygiene, inefficient sanitation and malnutrition contributed to the infant mortality rate of 60 per 1000 lives, maternal mortality rate of 125.3 per 1000, and a life expectancy of 65 years.<ref>LA Binn (2013). ''[https://caribbean.scielo.org/scielo.php?pid=S0043-31442013000300015&script=sci_arttext&tlng=pt Cuba: healthcare and the revolution]''. West Indian Medical Journal.</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citation|author=The World Bank|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Cuba|title-url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=CU}}</ref> In contrast, Cuba today has an infant mortality rate of 3.8 deaths per 1000 lives as of 2021,<ref>Macotrends. ''[https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CUB/cuba/infant-mortality-rate Cuba infant mortality rate 1950-2021]''</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=The World Bank|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) - Cuba|title-url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=CU}}</ref> a maternal mortality rate of 36 per 100,000 live births as of 2017,<ref>Macrotrends. [https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CUB/cuba/maternal-mortality-rate ''Cuba maternal mortality rate 2000-2021'']</ref> and a life expectancy of 79 years as of 2021.<ref>Macrotrends. [https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CUB/cuba/life-expectancy ''Cuba life expectancy 1950-2021'']</ref><ref name=":6" />

The rural population in Batista's era suffered from dismal health conditions, having only one rural hospital for the whole island, and only 11% of farm workers drank milk.<ref>C. William Keck, Gail A. Reed (2012). ''The curious case of Cuba''. {{Doi|10.2105/AJPH.2012.300822}}</ref> The infrastructure of households was also extremely underdeveloped under Batista. In a 1953 census, 54% of rural homes had no toilets of any kind. Only 2.3% of rural homes had indoor plumbing, compared with 54.6% of urban homes. In rural areas, 9.1% of houses had electricity, compared with 87% of houses in urban areas. Illiteracy and unemployment were widespread according to the same census, showing that nearly one-quarter of the people 10 years of age and older could not read or write and the unemployment rate was 25%.<ref name=":0" /> In 1958, under the Batista dictatorship, half of Cuba's children did not attend school.<ref>Jonathan Glennie. [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/aug/05/cuban-development-model “Cuba: A development model that proved the doubters wrong”]. ''The Guardian,'' 5 August 2011.</ref>
===Revolutionary movement; the freeing of Cuba (1953–1958)===
{{Main article|Cuban Revolution}}
Due to the inertia and inability to govern of the bourgeois political parties, a movement of a new type was born, headed by [[Fidel Castro]], a young lawyer whose first political activities had developed in the university environment and the ranks of orthodoxy. On July 26, 1953, a crew of revolutionaries, including Fidel Castro, assaulted Fort Moncada but failed. Nonetheless, the Cuban working classes were growing increasingly restless, and consequently, the neocolonial government (headed by Fulgencio Batista) suppressed trade unions, strikes, and censored much of the press. The failed attack inspired the creation of The 26th of July Movement, a Cuban vanguard revolutionary organization and later a political party led by Fidel Castro.

In 1955, Fidel Castro was introduced to [[Che Guevara]]. During a long conversation with Fidel on the night of their first meeting, Guevara concluded that the Cuban's cause was the one for which he had been searching and before daybreak, he had signed up as a member of the July 26 Movement.

On 2 December 1956, Fidel Castro and Che Guevara along with 82 men landed in Cuba, having sailed in the boat Granma from Tuxpan, Veracruz, [[Mexican United States|Mexico]], ready to organize and lead a revolution. Attacked by Batista's military soon after landing, many of the 82 men were either killed in the attack or executed upon capture; only 22 regrouped in the Sierra Maestra mountain range. While in the Sierra Maestra mountains the guerrilla forces attracted hundreds of Cuban volunteers and won several battles against the Cuban Army. By January of 1959, the Cuban masses had successfully overthrown the neocolonial government and Batista fled to Europe.

===Socialist era (1959–present)===
The republic era of Cuba began after the Cuban Revolution successfully took power. Shortly after the victory of the revolution, Cuba carried out a profound agrarian reform which ended ''latifundia'' [a highly unequal land estate system] in the island and distributed land to thousands of formerly landless small farmers. Initiatives in the cities were also made. Urban reform brought a halving of rents for Cuban tenants, opportunities for tenants to own their housing, and an ambitious program of housing construction for those living in marginal shantytowns. New housing, along with the implementation of measures to create jobs and reduce unemployment, especially among women, rapidly transformed the former shantytowns.<ref name=":2">Oxfam (2002). ''Cuba: social policy at the crossroads.'' ([https://s3.amazonaws.com/oxfam-us/www/static/oa3/files/OA-Cuba_Social_Policy_at_Crossroads-en.pdf PDF link])</ref>

In 1961, the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] sent Cuban exiles to attempt a counterrevolution against Castro. They killed over 2,000 Cubans but were defeated and the revolution survived. After the invasion failed, they enacted [[Operation Mongoose]] and secretly performed terrorist attacks against civilians in an attempt to destabilize Cuba. In 1976, reactionary Cuban exiles bombed Cubana de Aviación Flight 455, killing everyone on board.<ref>{{Citation|author=Peter Kornbluh|year=2005|title=LUIS POSADA CARRILES: THE DECLASSIFIED RECORD|chapter=|section=|page=|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB153/|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref>

The Cuban revolution has also made great strides in eliminating discrimination and inequality. In the last 40 years Cubans have greatly reduced differences in income between the lowest and the highest paid persons. Women have benefited significantly from the revolution as they have educated themselves and entered the labor force in large numbers. The differences among Cubans of different races have also been reduced.<ref name=":2" />

Fidel Castro became First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba in 1961. He was replaced in 2011 by his brother [[Raúl Castro]]. Miguel Díaz-Canel replaced Raul in 2021.

In 2021, [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] pro-[[Imperialism|imperialist]] protestors [[2021 Cuban protests|took to the streets]] with support from [[United States of America|US]] entities such as the CIA.<ref>https://www.cubasupport.ie/latest/the-cia-insists-on-promoting-a-color-revolution-in-cuba/</ref>

== Economy ==
Despite the economic blockade enforced by the US, Cuba has largely succeeded in providing a decent quality of life for its people and maintaining economic development. As of 2020, Cuba has one of the lowest unemployment rates in the world, of just 1,59%.<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/388644/unemployment-rate-in-cuba/ Cuba: Unemployment rate from 1999 to 2020]. ''Statista''.</ref> Compared to the vast majority of developing countries in [[Latin America]], Africa and southern Asia, Cuba scores extremely well on virtually all indicators of socioeconomic development: life expectancy, access to healthcare and housing, education levels, employment rates, status of women and infant mortality rates.<ref>Clifford L. Staten (2005). 'Cuba and its people' in ''The history of Cuba.'' Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403962591 ([http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=DE11DAA6342FE92307FDE6B81E5FD1CF Library Genesis link])</ref>

In 2019, the Cuban government began promoting non-agricultural cooperatives to help expand the economy.<ref>[https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2019-09-10/legislation-governing-non-agricultural-cooperatives-updated Legislation governing non-agricultural cooperatives updated] by [[Granma (newspaper)|Granma]], the official newspaper of the [[Communist Party of Cuba]]</ref>

===Exports===
Cuba exports a total of $1.21 billion as of 2019. Its exports are composed of rolled tobacco ($287M), raw sugar ($211M), nickel mattes ($134M), hard liquor ($97.3M), and zinc ore ($78.4M). The most common export destinations are [[People's Republic of China|China]] ($461M), [[Spain]] ($127M), [[Netherlands]] ($65.5M), [[Germany]] ($64.7M), and [[Cyprus]] ($48.9M).<ref name=":4" />

===Imports===
Cuba imports a total of $5.28 billion as of 2019. Its imports are composed of machinery and appliances ($884M), poultry meat ($286M), wheat ($181M), soybean meal ($167M), corn ($146M), and concentrated milk ($136M). The most common import partners for Cuba are Spain ($1.01B), China ($790M), [[Italy]] ($327M), [[Canada]] ($285M), and [[Russia]] ($285M).<ref name=":4" /> The Cuban economy is heavily reliant on food imports, with 70% to 80% of its food requirement being imported from outside.<ref name=":5" />

===Sustainable development and environmental preservation===
[[File:Human Development vs Ecological Footprint.jpg|alt=Graph showing that Cuba excels in having a low ecological for its high human development index |thumb|Human Development vs Ecological Footprint, showing that Cuba is among the most ecologically friendly countries compared to its HDI rating]]
Cuba is the most sustainably developed country worldwide, achieving high levels of social performance with low levels of ecological impact.<ref>Jason Hickel (2019). ''The sustainable development index: Measuring the ecological efficiency of human development in the anthropocene.'' Ecological Economics. {{Doi|10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.05.011}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=World Wildlife Fund|title=The Other Cuban Revolution|title-url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?1944/the-other-cuban-revolution}}</ref><ref>[https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/As-World-Burns-Cuba-Number-1-for-Sustainable-Development-WWF-20161027-0018.html As world burns, Cuba number 1 for sustainable development: WWF]. ''Telesur''.</ref>

== Politics ==
In the constitution of Cuba, the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] (PCC) is the "superior leading political force of society and the state",<ref>''2019 Constitution of Republic of Cuba''. Article 5. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/cuba/constitucion-republica-cuba/ Link (Spanish)]</ref> and its role is fundamental in setting the country's national policy, but it shares power with several other state organs:

* [[National Assembly of People's Power]] (NAPP),<ref group="lower-alpha">Spanish: Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular</ref> considered the maximum authority of the state, mainly exercises legislative functions.<ref>''2019 Constitution of Republic of Cuba''. Articles 102 & 103. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/cuba/constitucion-republica-cuba/ Link (Spanish)]</ref>
The National Assembly of People's Power is the supreme organ of State power. It represents and expresses the sovereign will of all the people. It is the only body with constituent and legislative power in the Republic. It is made up of deputies elected by the free, direct and secret vote of the voters, in the proportion and according to the procedure determined by law.

It is elected for a five-year term. This term may only be extended by agreement of the Assembly itself in case of war or by virtue of other exceptional circumstances that prevent the normal holding of the elections and while such circumstances subsist.

When constituting itself for a new legislature, it elects its President, Vice President and Secretary from among its deputies. The law regulates the form and procedure by which the Assembly is constituted and carries out that election. The National Assembly of People's Power elects, from among its deputies, the Council of State, made up of a President, a First Vice President, five Vice Presidents, a Secretary and twenty-three other members. The President of the Council of State is head of state and head of government.

The Council of State is responsible to the National Assembly of People's Power and renders an account of all its activities. Local Bodies of Popular Power The Assemblies of Popular Power, constituted in the political-administrative demarcations into which the national territory is divided, are the local superior bodies of State power, and, consequently, are invested with the highest authority for the exercise of state functions in their respective demarcations and for this, within the framework of their competence, and adjusting to the law, they exercise government. In addition, they contribute to the development of activities and compliance with the plans of the units established in their territory that are not subordinate to them, in accordance with the provisions of the law. The Local Administrations that these Assemblies constitute, direct the economic, production and service entities of local subordination, with the purpose of satisfying the economic, health and other welfare, educational, cultural, sports and recreational needs of the community of the territory to which the jurisdiction of each extends. For the exercise of their functions, the Local Assemblies of People's Power rely on the People's Councils and on the initiative and broad participation of the population, and they act in close coordination with the mass and social organizations.

The Popular Councils are constituted in cities, towns, neighborhoods, towns and rural areas; they are invested with the highest authority for the performance of their duties; they represent the demarcation where they operate and at the same time are representatives of the municipal, provincial and national bodies of Popular Power. They actively work for efficiency in the development of production and service activities and for the satisfaction of the welfare, economic, educational, cultural and social needs of the population, promoting their greater participation and local initiatives to solve problems. their problems. They coordinate the actions of existing entities in their area of action, promote cooperation between them and exercise control and supervision of their activities. The Popular Councils are constituted from the delegates elected in the circumscriptions, who must choose among themselves who presides over them. The representatives of the mass organizations and the most important institutions in the demarcation can belong to them.
* Council of State,<ref group="lower-alpha">Spanish: Consejo de Estado</ref> an organ of the National Assembly which implements the decisions of NAPP and exercises control and oversight of state organs.<ref>''2019 Constitution of Republic of Cuba''. Article 120–122. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/cuba/constitucion-republica-cuba/ Link (Spanish)]</ref>
The Council of State is the body of the National Assembly of People's Power that represents it between one session and another, executes its agreements and fulfills the other functions that the Constitution attributes to it. It has a collegial character and, for national and international purposes, holds the supreme representation of the Cuban State. All the decisions of the Council of State are adopted by the favorable vote of the simple majority of its members. The mandate entrusted to the Council of State by the National Assembly of People's Power expires when the new Council of State elected by virtue of its periodic renewals takes office.
* Council of Ministers,<ref group="lower-alpha">Spanish: Consejo de Ministros</ref> exercises the executive functions and directs political, economical, cultural, scientific and social activities based on the decisions of the NAPP.<ref>''2019 Constitution of Republic of Cuba''. Articles 133–137. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/cuba/constitucion-republica-cuba/ Link (Spanish)]</ref>
The Council of Ministers is the highest executive and administrative body and constitutes the Government of the Republic. The number, name and functions of the central ministries and agencies that are part of the Council of Ministers is determined by law. It is made up of the Head of State and Government, who is its President, the First Vice President, the Vice Presidents, the Ministers, the Secretary and the other members determined by law. The President, the First Vice President, the Vice Presidents and other members of the Council of Ministers determined by the President, make up its Executive Committee. The Executive Committee can decide on the issues attributed to the Council of Ministers, during the periods that mediate between one and another of its meetings. The law regulates the organization and functioning of the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers is responsible and renders an account, periodically, of all its activities before the National Assembly of People's Power.
* National Defense Council,<ref group="lower-alpha">Spanish: Consejo Nacional de Defensa</ref> is constituted and prepared since peacetime to lead the country in the conditions of a state of war, during war, general mobilization or a state of emergency.<ref>''2019 Constitution of Republic of Cuba''. Articles 218–219. [http://www.cubadebate.cu/cuba/constitucion-republica-cuba/ Link (Spanish)]</ref>

=== Elections ===
[[File:Cuban election.png|thumb|Elementary schoolers guarding a ballot box in La Corbata]]
Elections in Cuba take place at three levels: municipal, provincial and national. There are also two types of elections: general and partial. All citizens and permanent residents sixteen years and older are allowed to vote, without any registration or effort on the part of the citizens. In order to make elections fair, candidates cannot spend money on their campaigns.<ref name=":9">{{Web citation|author=Calla Walsh|newspaper=[[Multipolarista]]|title=US youth observe Cuba’s elections – and learn about real democracy|date=2022-12-02|url=https://multipolarista.com/2022/12/02/cuba-elections-democracy/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204145258/https://multipolarista.com/2022/12/02/cuba-elections-democracy/|archive-date=2022-12-04|retrieved=2022-12-04}}</ref> The PCC is not involved in either nominating or electing candidates,<ref name=":8">{{Citation|author=Arnold August|year=2013|title=Cuba and its neighbours: democracy in motion|chapter=Elections in contemporary Cuba|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=79273783E814B6A8747EA24710D15F0C}}</ref> and party membership is not required to run for office. The most recent elections had a voter turnout rate of 73%, and elections are always held on weekends so people do not have to choose between work and voting. Each municipality must have at least two candidates running for election so no one runs unopposed. If no candidate wins a majority, a runoff occurs the following week.<ref name=":9" />

==== Nominations ====
The [[Committees in Defense of the Revolution]], with more than 8.4 million members, and the the [[Cuban Federation of Women]], which includes more than 85% of Cuban women 15 and older, nominate candidates for elections.<ref name=":9" />

==== Partial elections ====
The partial elections happen every two and a half years at the municipal level.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Granma|title=How do elections work in Cuba?|date=2018-02-20|url=https://en.granma.cu/cuba/2018-02-20/how-do-elections-work-in-cuba}}</ref> Through the neighborhood constituencies, neighbors directly nominate people from among themselves by show-of-hands, and from among these nominees, citizens elect delegates to the Municipal Assembly of People's Power via secret ballot.<ref name=":8" />

==Governance==
===Education===
Cuba has a public education system from the primary to the superior levels, free to its citizens. Around 12% of Cuba's GDP is invested in public education, the highest percentage on GDP devoted to education worldwide.<ref>World Bank (2010). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=CU&most_recent_value_desc=true Cuba – Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP)]''.</ref> The literacy rate of the adult population is 99.75%, the highest in Latin America.<ref>World Bank (2012). [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=CU ''Cuba – Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)''].</ref> One of the most significant developments in Cuban education was the National Literacy Campaign of 1961, spearheaded by [[Che Guevara]], a campaign recognized as one of the most successful initiatives of its kind, which mobilized teachers, workers, and secondary school students to teach more than 700,000 persons how to read. This campaign reduced the illiteracy rate from 23% to 4% in the space of one year.<ref name=":2" />

===Healthcare===
Cuba's healthcare system is based on public investment and universal provision. Around 11% of its GDP is devoted to healthcare, the highest among Latin American countries.<ref>Richard S. Cooper, Joan F Kennelly, Pedro Orduñez-Garcia (2006). ''Health in Cuba.'' International Journal of Epidemiology. {{Doi|10.1093/ije/dyl175}}</ref> As a result of this, free healthcare is guaranteed for all citizens, and Cuba's health indicators are highly ranked both regionally and globally.<ref name=":0" /> Besides the investment, another important factor of success in Cuban healthcare model is its strategy.<ref>Richard S. Cooper, Joan F Kennelly, Pedro Orduñez-Garcia (2006). ''Health in Cuba.'' International Journal of Epidemiology. {{Doi|10.1093/ije/dyl175}}</ref> Cuban doctors focus on preventative medicine to prevent disease before it occurs.<ref>{{News citation|author=Jack Guy|newspaper=Culture Trip|title=Why Cuba Has the Best Doctors in the World|date=2017-11-29|url=https://theculturetrip.com/caribbean/cuba/articles/why-cuba-has-the-best-doctors-in-the-world/|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref> Cuban medicine has made some impressive achievements, such as eliminating mother-to-child HIV and syphilis transmission<ref name=":3" /> and creating a vaccine for lung cancer.<ref>{{News citation|author=Sarah Zhang|newspaper=The Atlantic|title=Cuba's Innovative Cancer Vaccine Is Finally Coming to America|date=2016-11-07|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/11/cubas-lung-cancer-vaccine/505778/|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref>

In 2008, Cuba authorized free sex reassignment surgery for [[Transphobia|transgender people]].<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=[[BBC]]|title=Cuba to provide free sex-change|date=2008-06-07|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7441448.stm|retrieved=2022-04-24}}</ref>

In the Cuban capitol city of Havana, the Latin American School of Medicine offers free tuition, accommodation, and board. Some Statesian students attend this school.<ref>{{News citation|date=2022-02-02|title=Meet the U.S. Students Studying Medicine For Free in Cuba|url=https://youtu.be/h7g2T3BWg9E|newspaper=[[Breakthrough News]]}}</ref>
====Nutrition====
With a rate of undernourishment of only 2.5%,<ref>World Bank (2018). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SN.ITK.DEFC.ZS?locations=CU Cuba – Prevalence of undernourishment (% of population)].''</ref> Cuba is one of only 17 nations worldwide to have a score lower than 5 on the Global Hunger Index.<ref>Global Hunger Index (2020. ''[https://www.globalhungerindex.org/cuba.html Cuba].''</ref> Statesians are more than twice as likely to die from malnutrition than Cubans.<ref>Our World in Data (2017). ''[https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/malnutrition-death-rates?tab=chart&country=CUB+USA Death rate from malnutrition, 1990 to 2017 (Cuba and United States)].''</ref>

Over the last 50 years, comprehensive social protection programs have largely eradicated poverty and hunger. Food-based social safety nets include a monthly food basket for the entire population, school feeding programs, and mother-and-child health care programs.<ref name=":5">United Nations World Food Program. [https://www1.wfp.org/countries/cuba ''Cuba''].</ref> The average Cuban consumes approx. 3300 calories per day, far above the Latin American and Caribbean average. Approx. 2/3 of nutritional needs are met by monthly food rations, while the rest is bought independently.<ref>FAS, USDA (2008). ''Cuba’s food & agriculture situation report.'' ([https://thecubaneconomy.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Cuba%E2%80%99s-Food-Agriculture-Situation-Report-USDA-2008.pdf PDF link])</ref>
==Common misconceptions==

===Cuban "exiles" to the USA===
A common [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] trope against Cuban socialism is the question of Cuban immigrants who depart to the US. Socialism in Cuba is portrayed as a dystopia which fuels migrants to look for an alternative in the [[United States of America|United States]]. The first wave of migrants happened in 1959 to 1962, just after the Cuban Revolution, motivated by the political turmoil in the island. The vast majority of these migrants were allies of the Batista dictatorship, including military officers, large landowners or wealthy business owners who lost their property in the island,<ref name=":7">{{Textcite|author=Jorge Duany|year=1999|title=Cuban communities in the United States: migration waves, settlement patterns and socioeconomic diversity|pdf=|publisher=Pouvoirs dans la Caraïbe|lg=|web=https://journals.openedition.org/plc/464}}</ref> prompting the bourgeois media to dub it as the "Golden exile." The second wave of migrants happened from 1965 to 1973, and the migrants still over-represented the wealthy sections population. Together, these two migrant waves represent over 51% of all population migrated from Cuba to the United States.<ref name=":7" />

The exile narrative also omits the fact that there is a circular migration and return of many of the migrated. The "exile" narrative is a remnant of the [[Cold War]] era, a propaganda narrative used to belittle and distort the Cuban reality.<ref>{{Textcite|author=Katarzyna Dembicz|year=2020|title=The end of the myth of the Cuban exile? Current trends in Cuban emigration|pdf=http://czasopisma.uni.lodz.pl/international/article/download/9429/9286|publisher=International Studies. Interdisciplinary Political and Cultural Journal. Vol. 25, No. 1/2020|lg=}}</ref> Besides the political motivation behind the first waves of migration, since the 90's there is an economic reason behind the migration waves, mainly related to the blockade promoted by the US and the [[overthrow of the Soviet Union]], which affected immensely the Cuban economy.
==References==
<references />

=== Notes ===
<references group="lower-alpha" />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Marxist-Leninist states]]
[[Category:Cuba]]
[[Category:Countries sanctioned by the US]]
[[Category:Countries targeted by imperialist aggression]]
[[Category:Countries invaded by the United States]]

Cuban Revolution

2023-05-26T00:37:35Z

DanielPuenteNovo: Just added a Military Conflict Template

{{Infobox military conflict
|date = July 26th, 1953 - January 1st, 1959
|result = [[Cuban Revolutionaries]] Victory
|combatant1 = {{icon|}} [[Cuban Revolutionaries]]
|combatant2 = {{icon|}} [[Cuban Government Armed Forces]]
|type=National liberation revolution
|image=
|place=Cuba}}

The '''Cuban Revolution''' was a largely peasant-based national liberation movement in [[Cuba]], waged from July 1953 until New Year's Day 1959 by [[Fidel Castro]]'s 26th of July Movement (M-26-7) against the neocolonial military regime of Fulgencio Batista.

While the M-26-7 was not an explicitly [[Marxist-Leninist]] organization, its top leadership was largely dominated by Marxist-Leninists such as [[Raúl Castro]] and [[Che Guevara]], and its earliest announced goals were intentionally kept moderate in order to retain integral support from liberal elements (such as the primarily student-based Revolutionary Directorate) as well as international support from countries hostile to communism. For this reason, Marxist-Leninists consider it to be a national liberation movement moreso than a socialist revolution. In 1961, Fidel Castro announced he was a Marxist-Leninist and that the Cuban Revolution was now a socialist revolution.<ref>https://www.workers.org/2016/11/27970/</ref>

Cuban national history as it was established after the victory of the M-26-7 considers the "Revolution" to be more than just the armed struggle from 1953 to 1959. Instead, the Cuban state refers to the entire period from Cuba's independence from Spanish colonialism until the establishment of socialism as an extended revolutionary process. The "revolution" is used as a term that denotes all of the accomplishments of Cuban socialism since, as well as its proud independence from neocolonialism and US [[imperialism]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Cuba]]

Fidel Castro

2023-05-25T19:04:58Z

DanielPuenteNovo: Adding the Law according Fidel will that his name should not be used to name public spaces.

{{Infobox revolutionary
| honorific_prefix = El Comandante
| name = Fidel Castro
| image = File:Fidel Castro High Res Image.png
| image_size = 230px
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption = Portrait of comrade Fidel
| nationality = [[Cuba|Cuban]]
|political_party=[[Communist Party of Cuba]]| birth_name = Fidel Hipólito Castro Ruz
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1926|08|13}}
| birth_place = Birán, [[Cuba]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2016|11|25|1926|08|13}}
| death_place = Havana, Cuba
| political_line = [[Marxism-Leninism]]
|death_cause=Natural causes}}
'''Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz''' {{Datebio|birthday=13th|birthmonth=August|birthyear=1926|deathday=25th|deathmonth=November|deathyear=2016}} was a [[Republic of Cuba|Cuban]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] revolutionary and a leader of the [[Cuban Revolution]], alongside [[Che Guevara]]. He served as Prime Minister of [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]] from 1959 to 1976 and President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] from 1961 until 2011.

A sympathizer of the Cuban People's Party (Orthodox), he actively participated in the party's campaigns and was one of the first to denounce the reactionary and illegitimate nature of the de facto regime established after the coup d'état by Fulgencio Batista on March 10, 1952. <ref>La Historia me absolverá. F.Castro Ruz...[et.al.] -Ediciones Colihue SRL, 1993. -p156. <nowiki>ISBN 9505818041</nowiki>.</ref>

He was imprisoned after the assaults on the Moncada barracks in Santiago de Cuba and the Carlos Manuel de Céspedes barracks in Bayamo, assuming his self-defense before the court that tried him, and pronouncing the plea known as History will absolve me, in which he outlined the program of the future Revolution in Cuba. <ref>Castro Ruz, Fidel. https://bnah.inah.gob.mx/bnah_lazaro_cardenas/uploads/E4_D124_FF1_18.pdf «La historia me absolverá» /Fidel Castro Ruz. </ref>

Sentenced to 15 years in prison, he was amnestied in 1955 and went into exile in Mexico, from where he left with 81 other revolutionaries to disembark at Los Coyuelos on December 2, 1956. After several months of hard struggle, he entered victorious on January 1, 1959 in Santiago de Cuba and arrives in Havana on January 8.

On February 16, 1959, he was appointed Prime Minister of the Revolutionary Government. On December 2, 1976, he was elected President of the Councils of State and Ministers of the Republic of Cuba, a position he held until his resignation due to health problems on February 24, 2008. <ref>«Proclama del Comandante en Jefe al pueblo de Cuba» http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/2006/esp/f310706e.html</ref> First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba between 1965 and 2011.

In 1992, Fidel warned that [[climate change]] was an existential threat to the human species<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Qcostarica|title=Fidel Castro Warned Us Of Climate Change|date=2019-08-08|url=https://qcostarica.com/fidel-castro-warned-us-of-climate-change/}}</ref><blockquote>“An important biological species is at risk of disappearing due to the rapid and progressive liquidation of its natural living conditions: man”</blockquote>

==Failed Assassination Attempts==
The Cuban security services have documented after investigations over 600 attempts to murder Fidel Castro up until the year 2007.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Fabián Escalante|newspaper=Cuba Debate|title=Objetivo: Fidel|date=2016-07-25|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/opinion/2016/07/25/objetivo-fidel/#.V6sgnycffEw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201064436/http://www.cubadebate.cu/opinion/2016/07/25/objetivo-fidel/|archive-date=2022-12-22|retrieved=2023-03-06}}</ref> These failed attempts by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], directly or indirectly, had many methods. Some of the many attempts included: Snipers, explosives placed in his shoes, explosives inside a baseball, and poison injected into a cigar.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Cuba Debate|title=Fidel, la persona que más veces intentaron matar|date=2011-12-15|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2011/12/15/fidel-entra-en-el-libro-de-los-record-guinnes/#.V6sesScffEw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609182840/http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2011/12/15/fidel-entra-en-el-libro-de-los-record-guinnes/|archive-date=2021-06-09|retrieved=2023-03-06}}</ref>

== Fidel and his will regarding his memory ==
On December 27, 2016, the Law on the use of the name and figure of Fidel Castro Ruz in respect of his will, as expression of the political ethics that always accompanied him an expression of the humility and modesty that characterized him, and having always honored Marti's preaching that "all the glory of the world fits in a grain of corn", that his name will not be used to name institutions, squares, parks, avenues, streets and other public places, nor will monuments, busts, statues, commemorative plaques and other be erected in his memory. similar forms of tribute <ref>Parliament approves a law on the use of the name and figure of Fidel Castro Ruz http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2016/12/27/presentan-proyecto-de-ley-sobre-el-uso-del-nombre-y-la-figura-del-companero-fidel-castro-ruz/#.WGPAXScffEw</ref>.

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Anti-imperialists]]
[[Category:Communist leaders]]
[[Category:Targets of intelligence operations]]

Fidel Castro

2023-05-25T18:47:04Z

DanielPuenteNovo: I added some more details about Fidel Castro General Description.

{{Infobox revolutionary
| honorific_prefix = El Comandante
| name = Fidel Castro
| image = File:Fidel Castro High Res Image.png
| image_size = 230px
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption = Portrait of comrade Fidel
| nationality = [[Cuba|Cuban]]
|political_party=[[Communist Party of Cuba]]| birth_name = Fidel Hipólito Castro Ruz
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1926|08|13}}
| birth_place = Birán, [[Cuba]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2016|11|25|1926|08|13}}
| death_place = Havana, Cuba
| political_line = [[Marxism-Leninism]]
|death_cause=Natural causes}}
'''Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz''' {{Datebio|birthday=13th|birthmonth=August|birthyear=1926|deathday=25th|deathmonth=November|deathyear=2016}} was a [[Republic of Cuba|Cuban]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] revolutionary and a leader of the [[Cuban Revolution]], alongside [[Che Guevara]]. He served as Prime Minister of [[Republic of Cuba|Cuba]] from 1959 to 1976 and President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] from 1961 until 2011.

A sympathizer of the Cuban People's Party (Orthodox), he actively participated in the party's campaigns and was one of the first to denounce the reactionary and illegitimate nature of the de facto regime established after the coup d'état by Fulgencio Batista on March 10, 1952. <ref>La Historia me absolverá. F.Castro Ruz...[et.al.] -Ediciones Colihue SRL, 1993. -p156. <nowiki>ISBN 9505818041</nowiki>.</ref>

He was imprisoned after the assaults on the Moncada barracks in Santiago de Cuba and the Carlos Manuel de Céspedes barracks in Bayamo, assuming his self-defense before the court that tried him, and pronouncing the plea known as History will absolve me, in which he outlined the program of the future Revolution in Cuba. <ref>Castro Ruz, Fidel. https://bnah.inah.gob.mx/bnah_lazaro_cardenas/uploads/E4_D124_FF1_18.pdf «La historia me absolverá» /Fidel Castro Ruz. </ref>

Sentenced to 15 years in prison, he was amnestied in 1955 and went into exile in Mexico, from where he left with 81 other revolutionaries to disembark at Los Coyuelos on December 2, 1956. After several months of hard struggle, he entered victorious on January 1, 1959 in Santiago de Cuba and arrives in Havana on January 8.

On February 16, 1959, he was appointed Prime Minister of the Revolutionary Government. On December 2, 1976, he was elected President of the Councils of State and Ministers of the Republic of Cuba, a position he held until his resignation due to health problems on February 24, 2008. <ref>«Proclama del Comandante en Jefe al pueblo de Cuba» http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/2006/esp/f310706e.html</ref> First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba between 1965 and 2011.

In 1992, Fidel warned that [[climate change]] was an existential threat to the human species<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Qcostarica|title=Fidel Castro Warned Us Of Climate Change|date=2019-08-08|url=https://qcostarica.com/fidel-castro-warned-us-of-climate-change/}}</ref><blockquote>“An important biological species is at risk of disappearing due to the rapid and progressive liquidation of its natural living conditions: man”</blockquote>

==Failed Assassination Attempts==
The Cuban security services have documented after investigations over 600 attempts to murder Fidel Castro up until the year 2007.<ref>{{Web citation|author=Fabián Escalante|newspaper=Cuba Debate|title=Objetivo: Fidel|date=2016-07-25|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/opinion/2016/07/25/objetivo-fidel/#.V6sgnycffEw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201064436/http://www.cubadebate.cu/opinion/2016/07/25/objetivo-fidel/|archive-date=2022-12-22|retrieved=2023-03-06}}</ref> These failed attempts by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], directly or indirectly, had many methods. Some of the many attempts included: Snipers, explosives placed in his shoes, explosives inside a baseball, and poison injected into a cigar.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=Cuba Debate|title=Fidel, la persona que más veces intentaron matar|date=2011-12-15|url=http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2011/12/15/fidel-entra-en-el-libro-de-los-record-guinnes/#.V6sesScffEw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609182840/http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2011/12/15/fidel-entra-en-el-libro-de-los-record-guinnes/|archive-date=2021-06-09|retrieved=2023-03-06}}</ref>

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Anti-imperialists]]
[[Category:Communist leaders]]
[[Category:Targets of intelligence operations]]