Republic of the Sudan - Revision history

Verda.Majo at 08:00, 28 July 2026

2026-07-28T08:00:16Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:00, 28 July 2026
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	==== Kush ====		==== Kush ====
	[[File:Map of ancient and medieval sub-Saharan African states.jpg\|alt=A map of Africa depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states of Sub-Saharan Africa, including their approximate locations and dates of their peak.\|thumb\|A map depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kush, Nobatia/Faras, Dongola, and Alodia.]]		[[File:Map of ancient and medieval sub-Saharan African states.jpg\|alt=A map of Africa depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states of Sub-Saharan Africa, including their approximate locations and dates of their peak.\|thumb\|A map depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kush, Nobatia/Faras, Dongola, and Alodia.]]
	The area around Kush was inhabited circa 8000 BCE. The city of Kerma was established in Kush by circa 2400 BCE. Kerma traded in ivory, gold, bronze, ebony, and slaves with neighboring states and along the Red Sea. Around 1500 BCE, Egypt conquered Kerma, with Egyptian rule prevailing in Kush until the 11th century BCE.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation\|author=Isma'il Kushkush\|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine\|title=In the Land of Kush\|date=2020-09\|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250823035007/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-date=2025-08-23}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence between approximately 1069 BCE and 350 CE.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Joshua J. Mark\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=The Kingdom of Kush\|date=2018-02-26\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717123919/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-date=2025-07-17}}</ref>		The area around Kush was inhabited circa 8000 BCE. The city of Kerma was established in Kush by circa 2400 BCE. Kerma traded in [[ivory]], [[gold]], [[bronze]], [[ebony]], and [[Slavery\|slaves]] with neighboring states and along the Red Sea. Around 1500 BCE, Egypt conquered Kerma, with Egyptian rule prevailing in Kush until the 11th century BCE.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation\|author=Isma'il Kushkush\|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine\|title=In the Land of Kush\|date=2020-09\|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250823035007/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-date=2025-08-23}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence between approximately 1069 BCE and 350 CE.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Joshua J. Mark\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=The Kingdom of Kush\|date=2018-02-26\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717123919/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-date=2025-07-17}}</ref>

	Over time, as Egypt's New Kingdom declined (circa 1069 BCE) the Kushite city of Napata grew stronger as a political entity independent of Egypt.<ref name=":4" /> Over time, a dynasty of kings from Napata arose, with the third king of Napata, Piankhi (also called Piye), defeating a coalition of Egyptian princes and establishing the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.<ref name=":3" />		Over time, as Egypt's New Kingdom declined (circa 1069 BCE) the Kushite city of Napata grew stronger as a political entity independent of Egypt.<ref name=":4" /> Over time, a dynasty of kings from Napata arose, with the third king of Napata, Piankhi (also called Piye), defeating a coalition of Egyptian princes and establishing the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.<ref name=":3" />
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	The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />		The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />

	In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its [[Debt\|debts]]. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />		In the 1860s, Egypt, a [[cotton]] producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its [[Debt\|debts]]. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />

	=== Mahdist state (1885-1899) ===		=== Mahdist state (1885-1899) ===
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	In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>		In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>

			Between 1983 and 1985, the capital of North Darfur, al-Fashir, received only one third of the usual rainfall, leading to hundreds of thousands of internally displaced people affected by famine moving to different parts of the country.<ref name=":20">{{Citation\|author=Mohamed Khougali\|year=2026\|title=Politically Unconscious: The Psychic Aftermath of the Sudanese Revolution\|title-url=https://www.iskrabooks.org/books/p/politically-unconscious}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref>		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref>
	[[File:Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after 1998 bombing.jpg\|alt=A person stands facing the bombed ruins of a building.\|thumb\|Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after being bombed by the US in 1998.]]		[[File:Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after 1998 bombing.jpg\|alt=A person stands facing the bombed ruins of a building.\|thumb\|Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after being bombed by the US in 1998.]]
	In 1998, [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant, claiming it was linked to [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref name=":19">{{Web citation\|newspaper=UN Meetings Coverage and Press Releases\|title=United States Bombing Of Pharmaceutical Plant Grave 'Act Of Terrorism' Sudan's Minister For External Relations Tells General Assembly\|date=1998-09-29\|url=https://press.un.org/en/1998/19980929.ga9457.html}}</ref> The plant was bombed on August 20, 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref> Sudan's minister for external relations later spoke of the bombing at the UN General Assembly, calling it a "grave act of terrorism".<ref name=":19" />		In 1998, [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant, claiming it was linked to [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref name=":19">{{Web citation\|newspaper=UN Meetings Coverage and Press Releases\|title=United States Bombing Of Pharmaceutical Plant Grave 'Act Of Terrorism' Sudan's Minister For External Relations Tells General Assembly\|date=1998-09-29\|url=https://press.un.org/en/1998/19980929.ga9457.html}}</ref> The plant was bombed on August 20, 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref> Sudan's minister for external relations later spoke of the bombing at the UN General Assembly, calling it a "grave act of terrorism".<ref name=":19" />

			=== Secession of South Sudan ===
	South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />		South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />

			=== 2018-19 uprisings ===
			Mohamed Khougali, a participant in the protests that took place from 2018-19 in Sudan, wrote in his analysis of the events in retrospect: "After the usurpation of the revolution by international organisations, political parties, and the military and paramilitary, the revolutionary spirit was tamed and fractured. Many of us entered a state of reflection. For me, this was marked by erratic reading, driven by questions of ‘what went wrong?’ and ‘how can it be corrected?’ It became clear that we, on the Left, were not at all ready for this moment—or, more accurately, not as organised as we should have been."<ref name=":20" />

	=== 2019-present ===		=== 2019-present ===

Verda.Majo: added image and some details about the US bombing of the pharmaceutical factory in 1998

2026-07-28T06:54:38Z

added image and some details about the US bombing of the pharmaceutical factory in 1998

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:54, 28 July 2026
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	In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>		In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref> [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref>		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref>
			[[File:Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after 1998 bombing.jpg\|alt=A person stands facing the bombed ruins of a building.\|thumb\|Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after being bombed by the US in 1998.]]
			In 1998, [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant, claiming it was linked to [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref name=":19">{{Web citation\|newspaper=UN Meetings Coverage and Press Releases\|title=United States Bombing Of Pharmaceutical Plant Grave 'Act Of Terrorism' Sudan's Minister For External Relations Tells General Assembly\|date=1998-09-29\|url=https://press.un.org/en/1998/19980929.ga9457.html}}</ref> The plant was bombed on August 20, 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref> Sudan's minister for external relations later spoke of the bombing at the UN General Assembly, calling it a "grave act of terrorism".<ref name=":19" />

	South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />		South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />

Verda.Majo: Added some details to recent history, added info about Britain's "Southern Policy" during the colonial era, reworded part of the lede

2025-11-03T05:51:11Z

Added some details to recent history, added info about Britain's "Southern Policy" during the colonial era, reworded part of the lede

Show changes

Verda.Majo: added a map for ancient and medieval kingdoms and added more information to the Anglo-Egyptian rule in history section

2025-09-04T09:59:04Z

added a map for ancient and medieval kingdoms and added more information to the Anglo-Egyptian rule in history section

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:59, 4 September 2025
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	==== Kush ====		==== Kush ====
			[[File:Map of ancient and medieval sub-Saharan African states.jpg\|alt=A map of Africa depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states of Sub-Saharan Africa, including their approximate locations and dates of their peak.\|thumb\|A map depicting several of the major ancient and medieval states in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kush, Nobatia/Faras, Dongola, and Alodia.]]
	The area around Kush was inhabited circa 8000 BCE. The city of Kerma was established in Kush by circa 2400 BCE. Kerma traded in ivory, gold, bronze, ebony, and slaves with neighboring states and along the Red Sea. Around 1500 BCE, Egypt conquered Kerma, with Egyptian rule prevailing in Kush until the 11th century BCE.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation\|author=Isma'il Kushkush\|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine\|title=In the Land of Kush\|date=2020-09\|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250823035007/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-date=2025-08-23}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence between approximately 1069 BCE and 350 CE.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Joshua J. Mark\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=The Kingdom of Kush\|date=2018-02-26\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717123919/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-date=2025-07-17}}</ref>		The area around Kush was inhabited circa 8000 BCE. The city of Kerma was established in Kush by circa 2400 BCE. Kerma traded in ivory, gold, bronze, ebony, and slaves with neighboring states and along the Red Sea. Around 1500 BCE, Egypt conquered Kerma, with Egyptian rule prevailing in Kush until the 11th century BCE.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation\|author=Isma'il Kushkush\|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine\|title=In the Land of Kush\|date=2020-09\|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250823035007/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-date=2025-08-23}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence between approximately 1069 BCE and 350 CE.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Joshua J. Mark\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=The Kingdom of Kush\|date=2018-02-26\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717123919/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-date=2025-07-17}}</ref>

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	The [[Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1916)\|Sultanate of Darfur]] arose in the mid-1600s.<ref name=":5">{{Web citation\|author=Christopher Banks\|newspaper=Liberation News\|title=Survivors and Saviors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (book review)\|date=2009-06-09\|url=https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826072206/https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-date=2025-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=J. O. Hunwick (Editor)\|year=1983\|title=Land in Dār Fūr: charters and related documents from the Dār Fūr sultanate\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/landindarfurchar0000unse/mode/1up\|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Its main trading centers were Kobbei and Al-Fashir.<ref name=":14" /> The Sultanate of Darfur remained an independent power until being annexed under Turco-Egyptian rule by 1874.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Citation\|author=R.S. O'Fahey\|year=1997\|title=THE CONQUEST OF DARFUR, 1873 - 1882\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44947726\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref>		The [[Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1916)\|Sultanate of Darfur]] arose in the mid-1600s.<ref name=":5">{{Web citation\|author=Christopher Banks\|newspaper=Liberation News\|title=Survivors and Saviors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (book review)\|date=2009-06-09\|url=https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826072206/https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-date=2025-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=J. O. Hunwick (Editor)\|year=1983\|title=Land in Dār Fūr: charters and related documents from the Dār Fūr sultanate\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/landindarfurchar0000unse/mode/1up\|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Its main trading centers were Kobbei and Al-Fashir.<ref name=":14" /> The Sultanate of Darfur remained an independent power until being annexed under Turco-Egyptian rule by 1874.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Citation\|author=R.S. O'Fahey\|year=1997\|title=THE CONQUEST OF DARFUR, 1873 - 1882\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44947726\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref>

	=== Turco-Egyptian rule ===		=== Turco-Egyptian rule (1820-1885) ===
	The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />		The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />

	In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its debts. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />		In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its [[Debt\|debts]]. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />

	=== Mahdist state ===		=== Mahdist state (1885-1899) ===
	In 1885, Khartoum was captured by the armies of the [[Mahdist revolution]] against British and Turco-Egyptian forces, led by [[Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abdullah]], eventually defeated by the British in 1898.<ref name=":6">{{Web citation\|author=Caelen Anacker\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Khartoum, Sudan (1821- )\|date=2010-07-07\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422034016/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-date=2025-04-22}}</ref><ref name=":5" />		In 1885, Khartoum was captured by the armies of the [[Mahdist revolution]] against British and Turco-Egyptian forces, led by [[Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abdullah]], eventually defeated by the British in 1898.<ref name=":6">{{Web citation\|author=Caelen Anacker\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Khartoum, Sudan (1821- )\|date=2010-07-07\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422034016/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-date=2025-04-22}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

	=== Anglo-Egyptian rule ===		=== Anglo-Egyptian rule (1899-1956) ===
	Anglo-Egyptian rule in Sudan was a condominium of joint rule established by an agreement between Great Britain and Egypt under which the two countries would jointly administer Sudan.<ref name=":8">{{Web citation\|author=David Zuber\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Ismail Al-Azhari (1900-1969)\|date=2022-03-11\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250710194240/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-date=2025-07-10}}</ref>		Anglo-Egyptian rule in Sudan was a condominium of joint rule established by an agreement between Great Britain and Egypt under which the two countries would jointly administer Sudan.<ref name=":8">{{Web citation\|author=David Zuber\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Ismail Al-Azhari (1900-1969)\|date=2022-03-11\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250710194240/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-date=2025-07-10}}</ref>

	~~Agriculture~~ in the ~~colonial period~~ was ~~primarily export-oriented~~, with the [[~~Gezira Scheme~~]] ~~established to supply~~ British ~~industrial capital~~ with ~~cotton~~.<ref name=":9">~~{{Citation\|author=Fatima Babiker Mahmoud\|year=1981\|title=Some Aspects of~~ the ~~Political Economy~~ of ~~the~~ Sudan~~\|title-url~~=~~https~~:/~~/www.jstor.org/stable/44947427\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref~~>		On the subject of Anglo-Egyptian joint rule, author Carole Collins, in the paper "Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan" refers to this agreement as serving to "preserve the fiction" that Sudan was being jointly administered, while in reality the British were in control, with the joint rule agreement serving useful [[Geopolitics\|geopolitical]] and economic purposes for the British. In Collins' analysis, the joint rule agreement was useful for deflecting the competition of other European powers as they competed for control of the Nile river, with British diplomats able to portray Britain as supposedly having no colonial ambitions in Sudan, able to claim they were only helping Egypt regain its "lost colony."<ref name=":16" /> Furthermore, the British were also able to use the joint rule agreement to push the costs of invading and further colonizing Sudan onto Egypt's treasury rather than Britain's.<ref name=":16" />

	In 1943, [[Ismail al-Azhari]], future prime minster of independent Sudan, helped form the Ashiqqa Party, the first political party organized in Sudan.<ref name=":8" />		Analyzing the style of administration of this period, Fatima Babiker Mahmoud notes that the colonial government's objectives included the exploitation of "existing tribal, regional and ethnic reality in order to apply the cheapest administration in a vast country" and to ensure a congruence between tribal and administrative boundaries, which "disguised colonial expansion and portrayed it as a competition between the different tribes and ethnic and regional groups."<ref name=":9" />

			Agriculture in the colonial condominium period was primarily export-oriented, with the [[Gezira Scheme]] established to supply British industrial capital with cotton.<ref name=":9">{{Citation\|author=Fatima Babiker Mahmoud\|year=1981\|title=Some Aspects of the Political Economy of the Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44947427\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref> Other major exports of this era were gum, livestock, and oilseeds (including sesame, groundnuts and cotton-seed).<ref name=":14" /> Subsistence agriculture became more and more integrated into the money economy while small-scale agriculture became more linked with the export market.<ref name=":9" /> Also during the colonial condominium period, production of handicrafts was halted in order to make way for foreign manufactured imports, mainly from Britain.<ref name=":9" />

			In 1928 and 1931, students at Gordon College organized strikes.<ref name=":14" /> During the 1930s, Sudanese nationalists formed study groups in Khartoum and Omdurman to discuss independence.<ref name=":16" /> In 1938, a Graduates' Congress was formed, which would come to have chapters in several cities and small towns and reach almost 2000 members and required at least a high school education,<ref name=":16" /> while in 1941 the Gordon College students' union was formed, whose activities would grow more overtly political throughout the 1940s with influence from the Graduates' Congress.<ref name=":14" /> In 1943, [[Ismail al-Azhari]], future prime minster of independent Sudan, helped form the Ashiqqa Party, the first political party organized in Sudan.<ref name=":8" /> In 1945, the Umma Party was formed.<ref name=":16" /> In 1946, Sudanese workers formed the Worker's Affairs Association (WAA), Sudan's first trade union, which was focused mainly on rail workers as the railway department was the single largest employer in Sudan with 20,000 railway workers.<ref name=":16" /> The Sudanese Movement for National Liberation (SMNL), later to become the Sudanese Communist Party (SCP), founded a branch at Gordon College in 1946.<ref name=":14" />

	=== Independence ===		=== Independence ===

Verda.Majo: typo fix

2025-08-29T11:46:16Z

typo fix

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:46, 29 August 2025
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	The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />		The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />

	In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its debts. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions~~, who~~ then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />		In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its debts. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />

	=== Mahdist state ===		=== Mahdist state ===

Verda.Majo: /* Medieval history */ added more on medieval history and on the period of Turco-Egyptian rule

2025-08-29T11:33:02Z

Medieval history: added more on medieval history and on the period of Turco-Egyptian rule

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:33, 29 August 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}

	'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. Sudan's capital is [[Khartoum]], located where the two major tributaries of the [[Nile River]] merge together.<ref name=":6" /> Sudan is Africa's third largest country by area. Prior to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa by area.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Embassy Of The Republic Of Sudan\|newspaper=Embassy of Sudan in Washington D.C.\|title=In Brief: Sudan\|url=https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250829083042/https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-29}}</ref>		'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. Sudan's capital is [[Khartoum]], located where the two major tributaries of the [[Nile River]] merge together.<ref name=":6" /> Sudan is [[Africa]]'s third largest country by area. Prior to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa by area.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Embassy Of The Republic Of Sudan\|newspaper=Embassy of Sudan in Washington D.C.\|title=In Brief: Sudan\|url=https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250829083042/https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-29}}</ref>

	In 2023, a civil war broke out in Sudan following a series of mass protests by a coalition of civilian groups which gained momentum in 2018, and a succession of military takeovers and transitional governing structures following the 2019 military ousting of [[Omar al-Bashir]], who had been Sudan's prior head of state for 30 years.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> Major warring factions consist of the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF) and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF) paramilitary, factions which had previously composed a Transitional Military Council formed after a military takeover of Sudan's short-lived transitional government which itself had been formed after the 2019 ousting of Bashir.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> The civilian protests against Bashir and also against the successive transitional governments have included people's Resistance Committees and the [[Sudanese Communist Party]] (SCP), among other groups such as the Sudanese Professional Association.<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref><ref name=":10" />		In 2023, a civil war broke out in Sudan following a series of mass protests by a coalition of civilian groups which gained momentum in 2018, and a succession of military takeovers and transitional governing structures following the 2019 military ousting of [[Omar al-Bashir]], who had been Sudan's prior head of state for 30 years.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> Major warring factions consist of the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF) and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF) paramilitary, factions which had previously composed a Transitional Military Council formed after a military takeover of Sudan's short-lived transitional government which itself had been formed after the 2019 ousting of Bashir.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> The civilian protests against Bashir and also against the successive transitional governments have included people's Resistance Committees and the [[Sudanese Communist Party]] (SCP), among other groups such as the Sudanese Professional Association.<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref><ref name=":10" />
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	By the sixth century CE there were three Nubian kingdoms, namely Nobadia, Makuria, and Alodia.<ref name=":7" /> These kingdoms converted to [[Christianity]] in the sixth century.<ref name=":7" /> In the seventh century, Nobadia was incorporated into Makuria.<ref name=":7" />		By the sixth century CE there were three Nubian kingdoms, namely Nobadia, Makuria, and Alodia.<ref name=":7" /> These kingdoms converted to [[Christianity]] in the sixth century.<ref name=":7" /> In the seventh century, Nobadia was incorporated into Makuria.<ref name=":7" />

	Mentions of the Funj ~~sultanate~~ appear in historical records by approximately 1504.<ref>{{Citation\|author=A.C.S. Peacock\|year=2012\|title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23258896\|publisher=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies}}</ref><ref name=":7" />		Mentions of the [[Funj Sultanate]], also called the Sultanate of Sennar, appear in historical records by approximately 1504.<ref>{{Citation\|author=A.C.S. Peacock\|year=2012\|title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23258896\|publisher=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> The Funj Sultanate was located in central Sudan.<ref name=":13">{{Citation\|author=Mahmood Mamdani\|year=2009\|title=Saviors and Survivors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/saviorssurvivors0000mamd_b4z0\|publisher=Verso}}</ref> Major exports of the Funj Sultanate included gold, slaves, gum arabic, ivory, rhinoceros horn, civet, ostrich feathers and perfumes.<ref name=":14">{{Citation\|author=Tim Niblock\|year=1987\|title=Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics, 1898-1985\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/classpowerinsuda0000nibl/\|publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref>

	The ~~sultanate~~ of ~~Dar Fur~~ arose in the mid-1600s.<ref name=":5">{{Web citation\|author=Christopher Banks\|newspaper=Liberation News\|title=Survivors and Saviors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (book review)\|date=2009-06-09\|url=https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826072206/https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-date=2025-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=J. O. Hunwick (Editor)\|year=1983\|title=Land in Dār Fūr: charters and related documents from the Dār Fūr sultanate\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/landindarfurchar0000unse/mode/1up\|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>		The [[Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1916)\|Sultanate of Darfur]] arose in the mid-1600s.<ref name=":5">{{Web citation\|author=Christopher Banks\|newspaper=Liberation News\|title=Survivors and Saviors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (book review)\|date=2009-06-09\|url=https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826072206/https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-date=2025-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=J. O. Hunwick (Editor)\|year=1983\|title=Land in Dār Fūr: charters and related documents from the Dār Fūr sultanate\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/landindarfurchar0000unse/mode/1up\|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Its main trading centers were Kobbei and Al-Fashir.<ref name=":14" /> The Sultanate of Darfur remained an independent power until being annexed under Turco-Egyptian rule by 1874.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Citation\|author=R.S. O'Fahey\|year=1997\|title=THE CONQUEST OF DARFUR, 1873 - 1882\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44947726\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref>

	=== Turco-Egyptian rule ===		=== Turco-Egyptian rule ===
			The period of Turco-Egyptian rule in Sudan is also referred to as Turkiyyah (Arabic: التركية, ''at-Turkiyyah'').<ref name=":13" />

			In the 1860s, Egypt, a cotton producer, had taken out loans from [[Britain]] and [[France]], during a period in which international cotton prices had risen in part due to the [[Statesian Civil War\|US Civil War]].<ref name=":15">{{Web citation\|author=Eric Toussaint\|newspaper=Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt\|title=Debt as an instrument of the colonial conquest of Egypt\|date=2016-06-06\|url=https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828152508/https://www.cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Egypt gained higher profits from cotton at this time, and took out loans, expecting to be able to repay its debts. However, cotton prices fell when the US resumed exporting cotton, and Egypt began to face difficulties with its debt repayments, with debt service consuming two-thirds of state revenues and half of export earnings by 1876.<ref name=":15" /> Egypt's increasing foreign debt led it to demand increased tax revenues from administrators in Sudan.<ref name=":16">{{Citation\|author=Carole Collins\|year=1976\|title=Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898\|publisher=MERIP Reports\|doi=10.2307/3010898\|volume=No. 46}}</ref> British and French creditors imposed economic restrictions on Egypt in the 1870s, establishing British and French [[dual control]] in Egyptian governance and the [[Caisse de la Dette Publique\|Public Debt Comission]] (French: ''Caisse de la Dette Publique''), increasingly eroding Egypt's sovereignty.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> Over time, Turco-Egyptian control over Sudan weakened as military garrisons began to be reduced in size and several military units disbanded, while taxation was increased. Some unemployed Sudanese soldiers who had been forced out of the Egyptian army due to budget restrictions, who then joined with the Mahdist movement.<ref name=":16" />

	=== Mahdist state ===		=== Mahdist state ===

Verda.Majo: rewrote lede section to include more information on the war

2025-08-29T09:18:29Z

rewrote lede section to include more information on the war

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:18, 29 August 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}

	'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. Sudan's capital is [[Khartoum]], located where the two major tributaries of the [[Nile River]] merge together.<ref name=":6" /> In 2023 a civil war broke out ~~against~~ the military ~~dictatorship~~ which ~~is currently in opposition to~~ the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>		'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. Sudan's capital is [[Khartoum]], located where the two major tributaries of the [[Nile River]] merge together.<ref name=":6" /> Sudan is Africa's third largest country by area. Prior to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa by area.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Embassy Of The Republic Of Sudan\|newspaper=Embassy of Sudan in Washington D.C.\|title=In Brief: Sudan\|url=https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250829083042/https://sudanembassy.org/in-brief-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-29}}</ref>

			In 2023, a civil war broke out in Sudan following a series of mass protests by a coalition of civilian groups which gained momentum in 2018, and a succession of military takeovers and transitional governing structures following the 2019 military ousting of [[Omar al-Bashir]], who had been Sudan's prior head of state for 30 years.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> Major warring factions consist of the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF) and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF) paramilitary, factions which had previously composed a Transitional Military Council formed after a military takeover of Sudan's short-lived transitional government which itself had been formed after the 2019 ousting of Bashir.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> The civilian protests against Bashir and also against the successive transitional governments have included people's Resistance Committees and the [[Sudanese Communist Party]] (SCP), among other groups such as the Sudanese Professional Association.<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref><ref name=":10" />

			The SAF is headed by [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] and the RSF by [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]] (also known as Hemedti).<ref name=":10" /> Earlier in his career, al-Burhan was posted in Darfur in the 2000s and coordinated joint actions with Hemedti's paramilitary group. In 2015, al-Burhan oversaw Sudanese troops fighting in [[Republic of Yemen\|Yemen]] on behalf of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]]-backed faction.<ref name=":11">{{Video citation\|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e46Nmw1neZc\|channel=Ahmed Kaballo\|title=African Stream's CEO Sits Down With His Father To Discuss Sudan's War {{!}} Pan-African Attitude Ep. 17\|date=2024-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=David Zuber\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Abdel Fattah al-Burhan (1960- )\|date=2022-04-19\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/abdel-fattah-al-burhan-1960/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828082702/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/abdel-fattah-al-burhan-1960/\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> Hemedti was formerly a commander of the [[Janjaweed]] militia group<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Alex De Waal\|newspaper=The Conversation\|title=Sudan conflict: Hemedti – the warlord who built a paramilitary force more powerful than the state\|date=2023-04-17\|url=https://theconversation.com/sudan-conflict-hemedti-the-warlord-who-built-a-paramilitary-force-more-powerful-than-the-state-203949\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250815115416/https://theconversation.com/sudan-conflict-hemedti-the-warlord-who-built-a-paramilitary-force-more-powerful-than-the-state-203949\|archive-date=2025-08-15}}</ref> and is one of the wealthiest people in Sudan,<ref name=":11" /> he and his family being involved in the gold mining industry.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Khalid Abdelaziz, Michael Georgy and Maha El Dahan\|newspaper=Reuters\|title=Exclusive: Sudan militia leader grew rich by selling gold\|date=2019-11-26\|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/world/exclusivesudan-militia-leader-grew-rich-by-selling-gold-idUSKBN1Y01DQ/}}</ref> The [[United Arab Emirates]], the leading destination of smuggled gold from Sudan, has been accused of financing and arming the RSF.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Mohammad Khansa\|newspaper=Peoples Dispatch\|title=Five reasons why the UAE is fixated on Sudan\|date=2025-07-27\|url=https://peoplesdispatch.org/2025/07/27/five-reasons-why-the-uae-is-fixated-on-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250829085647/https://peoplesdispatch.org/2025/07/27/five-reasons-why-the-uae-is-fixated-on-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-29}}</ref>

			After the outbreak of fighting between the SAF and RSF forces in 2023, the Sudanese Communist Party issued a statement which characterized the events as "a continuation of the struggle over power and the country's wealth, encouraged by some foreign powers, and being carried out by armed groups subservient to these foreign powers."<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sudanese Communist Party\|newspaper=SolidNet\|title=Sudanese CP, Statement of the Central Committee on the latest developments in Sudan\|date=2023-04-17\|url=https://www.solidnet.org/article/Sudanese-CP-Statement-of-the-Central-Committee-on-the-latest-developments-in-Sudan-00001/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828040111/https://www.solidnet.org/article/Sudanese-CP-Statement-of-the-Central-Committee-on-the-latest-developments-in-Sudan-00001/\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> In another statement, issued in 2025, the SCP described the warring parties as "two sides of the same coin" stating that both regional and international forces led by the [[United States of America\|United States]] have been seeking "to secure a partnership between the military and select civilian factions in order to protect their entrenched interests from the threat of radical change."<ref name=":12">{{Web citation\|author=Sudanese Communist Party\|newspaper=SolidNet\|title=Sudanese CP, Political Paper on the Current Situation in Sudan\|date=2025-04-22\|url=https://www.solidnet.org/article/Sudanese-CP-Political-Paper-on-the-Current-Situation-in-Sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250828042313/https://www.solidnet.org/article/Sudanese-CP-Political-Paper-on-the-Current-Situation-in-Sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-28}}</ref> The SCP statement emphasized the need to engage with the masses and construct "grassroots instruments of struggle [...] far removed from the machinations of elite politics."<ref name=":12" /> As of 2025, it has been estimated that at least 150,000 people have been killed and at least 13 million people displaced since the outbreak of the war.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Center for Preventive Action\|newspaper=Council on Foreign Relations\|title=Civil War in Sudan\|date=2025-04-15\|url=https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/power-struggle-sudan\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250825140758/https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/power-struggle-sudan\|archive-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>

	== History ==		== History ==

	=== Ancient history ===		=== Ancient history ===
	{{Main article\|Kingdom of Kush\|Nobadia}}The area which comprises modern Sudan has been known by different names and varying political and cultural groupings in different periods. The region historically known as [[Nubia]] is located in what is today northern Sudan and southern Egypt. The cataracts of the Nile river have in some contexts served a way of conceptualizing boundaries in the region, with the cataract at [[Aswan]] often considered the traditional boundary between Egypt in the north and Nubia in the south. Over millennia, the region of Nubia gave rise to a number of cultures and kingdoms.<ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|author=Mark Cartwright\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=Old Dongola\|date=2019-04-04\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515215403/https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-date=2025-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica\|title=Nubia\|date=2025-08-15\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827111749/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-date=2025-08-27\|retrieved=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Janice Kamrin and Adela Oppenheim\|newspaper=Metropolitan Museum of Art\|title=The Land of Nubia\|date=2018-02-02\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705145804/https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-date=2025-07-05}}</ref> Some of these include [[Kingdom of Kush\|Kush]], [[Makuria]], [[Nobadia]], and [[Alodia]].<ref name=":7">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan\|title=History of Sudan\|url=https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827121933/https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref name=":2" />		{{Main article\|Kingdom of Kush\|Nobadia}}The area which comprises modern Sudan has been known by different names and varying political and cultural groupings in different periods. The region historically known as [[Nubia]] is located in what is today northern Sudan and southern Egypt. The cataracts of the Nile river have in some contexts served as a way of conceptualizing boundaries in the region, with the cataract at [[Aswan]] often considered the traditional boundary between Egypt in the north and Nubia in the south. Over millennia, the region of Nubia gave rise to a number of cultures and kingdoms.<ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|author=Mark Cartwright\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=Old Dongola\|date=2019-04-04\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515215403/https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-date=2025-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica\|title=Nubia\|date=2025-08-15\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827111749/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-date=2025-08-27\|retrieved=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Janice Kamrin and Adela Oppenheim\|newspaper=Metropolitan Museum of Art\|title=The Land of Nubia\|date=2018-02-02\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705145804/https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-date=2025-07-05}}</ref> Some of these include [[Kingdom of Kush\|Kush]], [[Makuria]], [[Nobadia]], and [[Alodia]].<ref name=":7">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan\|title=History of Sudan\|url=https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827121933/https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

	==== Kush ====		==== Kush ====
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	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.

	In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]] (also known as Hemedti).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Vijay Prashad\|newspaper=The Tricontinental\|title=A Language of Blood Has Gripped Our World: The Twentieth Newsletter (2025)\|date=2025-05-15\|url=https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618234011/https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-date=2025-06-18}}</ref>		In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]] (also known as Hemedti).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10">{{Web citation\|author=Vijay Prashad\|newspaper=The Tricontinental\|title=A Language of Blood Has Gripped Our World: The Twentieth Newsletter (2025)\|date=2025-05-15\|url=https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618234011/https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-date=2025-06-18}}</ref>

	== References ==		== References ==

Verda.Majo: added more information to history section and lede

2025-08-27T14:17:25Z

added more information to history section and lede

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:17, 27 August 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}

	'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. In 2023 a civil war broke out against the military dictatorship which is currently in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>		'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. Sudan's capital is [[Khartoum]], located where the two major tributaries of the [[Nile River]] merge together.<ref name=":6" /> In 2023 a civil war broke out against the military dictatorship which is currently in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>

	== History ==		== History ==

	=== Ancient history ===		=== Ancient history ===
	{{Main article\|Kingdom of Kush\|Nobadia}}		{{Main article\|Kingdom of Kush\|Nobadia}}The area which comprises modern Sudan has been known by different names and varying political and cultural groupings in different periods. The region historically known as [[Nubia]] is located in what is today northern Sudan and southern Egypt. The cataracts of the Nile river have in some contexts served a way of conceptualizing boundaries in the region, with the cataract at [[Aswan]] often considered the traditional boundary between Egypt in the north and Nubia in the south. Over millennia, the region of Nubia gave rise to a number of cultures and kingdoms.<ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|author=Mark Cartwright\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=Old Dongola\|date=2019-04-04\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515215403/https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Dongola/\|archive-date=2025-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica\|title=Nubia\|date=2025-08-15\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827111749/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia\|archive-date=2025-08-27\|retrieved=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Janice Kamrin and Adela Oppenheim\|newspaper=Metropolitan Museum of Art\|title=The Land of Nubia\|date=2018-02-02\|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705145804/https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/nubia\|archive-date=2025-07-05}}</ref> Some of these include [[Kingdom of Kush\|Kush]], [[Makuria]], [[Nobadia]], and [[Alodia]].<ref name=":7">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Embassy of the Republic of the Sudan\|title=History of Sudan\|url=https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827121933/https://www.sudanembassy.nl/history-of-sudan/\|archive-date=2025-08-27}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

			==== Kush ====
			The area around Kush was inhabited circa 8000 BCE. The city of Kerma was established in Kush by circa 2400 BCE. Kerma traded in ivory, gold, bronze, ebony, and slaves with neighboring states and along the Red Sea. Around 1500 BCE, Egypt conquered Kerma, with Egyptian rule prevailing in Kush until the 11th century BCE.<ref name=":3">{{Web citation\|author=Isma'il Kushkush\|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine\|title=In the Land of Kush\|date=2020-09\|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250823035007/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/\|archive-date=2025-08-23}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence between approximately 1069 BCE and 350 CE.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Joshua J. Mark\|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia\|title=The Kingdom of Kush\|date=2018-02-26\|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250717123919/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kush/\|archive-date=2025-07-17}}</ref>

			Over time, as Egypt's New Kingdom declined (circa 1069 BCE) the Kushite city of Napata grew stronger as a political entity independent of Egypt.<ref name=":4" /> Over time, a dynasty of kings from Napata arose, with the third king of Napata, Piankhi (also called Piye), defeating a coalition of Egyptian princes and establishing the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.<ref name=":3" />

			Beginning in the 6th century BCE, the capital of Kush was gradually moved south to [[Meroë]], a junction of several important trade routes in a region which was rich with iron and precious metals<ref name=":3" /> as well as agricultural production exporting grains and cereals.<ref name=":4" /> Kush continued with Meroë as its capital until an invasion by Axumites circa 330 CE, which destroyed the city, with the Kingdom of Kush itself coming to an end circa 350 CE.<ref name=":4" />

			=== Medieval history ===
			By the sixth century CE there were three Nubian kingdoms, namely Nobadia, Makuria, and Alodia.<ref name=":7" /> These kingdoms converted to [[Christianity]] in the sixth century.<ref name=":7" /> In the seventh century, Nobadia was incorporated into Makuria.<ref name=":7" />

			Mentions of the Funj sultanate appear in historical records by approximately 1504.<ref>{{Citation\|author=A.C.S. Peacock\|year=2012\|title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23258896\|publisher=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies}}</ref><ref name=":7" />

			The sultanate of Dar Fur arose in the mid-1600s.<ref name=":5">{{Web citation\|author=Christopher Banks\|newspaper=Liberation News\|title=Survivors and Saviors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror (book review)\|date=2009-06-09\|url=https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250826072206/https://liberationnews.org/09-06-09-survivors-saviors-darfur-polit-html/\|archive-date=2025-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=J. O. Hunwick (Editor)\|year=1983\|title=Land in Dār Fūr: charters and related documents from the Dār Fūr sultanate\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/landindarfurchar0000unse/mode/1up\|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

			=== Turco-Egyptian rule ===

			=== Mahdist state ===
			In 1885, Khartoum was captured by the armies of the [[Mahdist revolution]] against British and Turco-Egyptian forces, led by [[Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abdullah]], eventually defeated by the British in 1898.<ref name=":6">{{Web citation\|author=Caelen Anacker\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Khartoum, Sudan (1821- )\|date=2010-07-07\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422034016/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/khartoum-sudan-1821/\|archive-date=2025-04-22}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

			=== Anglo-Egyptian rule ===
			Anglo-Egyptian rule in Sudan was a condominium of joint rule established by an agreement between Great Britain and Egypt under which the two countries would jointly administer Sudan.<ref name=":8">{{Web citation\|author=David Zuber\|newspaper=Blackpast\|title=Ismail Al-Azhari (1900-1969)\|date=2022-03-11\|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250710194240/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/ismail-al-azhari-1900-1969/\|archive-date=2025-07-10}}</ref>

			Agriculture in the colonial period was primarily export-oriented, with the [[Gezira Scheme]] established to supply British industrial capital with cotton.<ref name=":9">{{Citation\|author=Fatima Babiker Mahmoud\|year=1981\|title=Some Aspects of the Political Economy of the Sudan\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44947427\|publisher=University of Khartoum\|series=Sudan Notes and Records}}</ref>

			In 1943, [[Ismail al-Azhari]], future prime minster of independent Sudan, helped form the Ashiqqa Party, the first political party organized in Sudan.<ref name=":8" />

	=== Independence ===		=== Independence ===
			On January 1, 1956, Sudan gained formal independence, with Ismail al-Azhari elected as first prime minister.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />

			In the analysis of Fatima Babiker Mahmoud, a lecturer of [[political economy]] at the University of Khartoum in the 1980s,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Cindi Katz\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=Mahmoud, The Sudanese Bourgeoisie\|date=1985\|url=https://merip.org/1985/09/mahmoud-the-sudanese-bourgeoisie/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250706215547/https://merip.org/1985/09/mahmoud-the-sudanese-bourgeoisie/\|archive-date=2025-07-06}}</ref> after independence in 1956, the nature of the state which had previously been constructed to support colonial rule did not change significantly after independence. In Mahmoud's view, the main difference was a shift from British colonial policy to a neo-colonial configuration.<ref name=":9" />

	Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>		Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.		In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>

			In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.

	In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]].<ref name=":0" />		In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]] (also known as Hemedti).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Vijay Prashad\|newspaper=The Tricontinental\|title=A Language of Blood Has Gripped Our World: The Twentieth Newsletter (2025)\|date=2025-05-15\|url=https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618234011/https://thetricontinental.org/newsletterissue/sudan-language-of-blood/\|archive-date=2025-06-18}}</ref>

	== References ==		== References ==

Ledlecreeper27: Ancient history

2025-08-06T19:17:57Z

Ancient history

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:17, 6 August 2025
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	== History ==		== History ==

			=== Ancient history ===
			{{Main article\|Kingdom of Kush\|Nobadia}}

			=== Independence ===
	Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>		Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>

General-KJ: Expanded the article

2024-05-27T19:01:39Z

Expanded the article

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:01, 27 May 2024
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=~~Omdurman~~\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=~~290~~\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}

	'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in Northern Africa. ~~It is currently under~~ a military dictatorship in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>		'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. In 2023 a civil war broke out against the military dictatorship which is currently in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>

	== History ==		== History ==
	Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>		Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> ~~[[Republic of~~ South Sudan~~\|South Sudan]]~~ broke away from Sudan in 2011.		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.

	In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]].<ref name=":0" />		In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]].<ref name=":0" />

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	In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>		In 1978, Nimeiry signed the first of several stabilization programs with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. This resulted in the creation of a typical IMF/World Bank program which consisted of measures such as currency devaluation, trade liberalization, social spending cuts, layoffs, removal of food subsidies, and a shift to privatization and an export-oriented economy, particularly focusing on the export of cotton. The export-led growth model led to smallholders being pushed off of their lands while giving an advantage to already large land owners and agribusiness, as well as to a decline in the production of food for local consumption and a rise in dependence on imports of wheat via US taxpayer-subsidized commodity [[United States Agency for International Development\|aid]] programs.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Prendergast\|year=1989\|title=Blood Money for Sudan: World Bank and IMF to the "Rescue"\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186585\|publisher=Africa Today\|volume=Vol. 36, No. 3/4}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref> [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref>		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. The US labeled Sudan as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] in 1993.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Center for Global Development\|title=Brief Timeline of Key Sanctions Events in Sudan (adapted and updated from Hufbauer et al.)\|date=2011-10-06\|url=https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822145001/https://www.cgdev.org/article/brief-timeline-key-sanctions-events-sudan-adapted-and-updated-hufbauer-et-al\|archive-date=2025-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Samy Magdy\|newspaper=AP News\|title=IMF says initial deal reached with Sudan to reform economy\|date=2020-06-05\|url=https://apnews.com/article/65766f37f0eace78941206acea857ef9}}</ref>
			[[File:Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after 1998 bombing.jpg\|alt=A person stands facing the bombed ruins of a building.\|thumb\|Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory after being bombed by the US in 1998.]]
			In 1998, [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant, claiming it was linked to [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref name=":19">{{Web citation\|newspaper=UN Meetings Coverage and Press Releases\|title=United States Bombing Of Pharmaceutical Plant Grave 'Act Of Terrorism' Sudan's Minister For External Relations Tells General Assembly\|date=1998-09-29\|url=https://press.un.org/en/1998/19980929.ga9457.html}}</ref> The plant was bombed on August 20, 1998, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Sara Flounders\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|date=2023-04-12\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23}}</ref> Sudan's minister for external relations later spoke of the bombing at the UN General Assembly, calling it a "grave act of terrorism".<ref name=":19" />

	South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />		South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011. Following the secession of South Sudan, Sudan's oil revenue dropped significantly and gold became Sudan's primary revenue source.<ref name=":18">{{Web citation\|author=Bayan Abubakr\|newspaper=Middle East Research and Information Project\|title=The Abraham Accords and Sudan’s Global Counterrevolution\|date=2025-10-20\|url=https://www.merip.org/2025/10/the-abraham-accords-and-sudans-global-counterrevolution/}}</ref> The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and paramilitary forces established private companies for providing armed security in the gold industry and partnered with foreign investors.<ref name=":18" />

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	{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=~~Omdurman~~\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=~~290~~\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Republic of the Sudan\|native_name=جمهورية السودان\|image_flag=Flag of Sudan.png\|image_coat=Emblem of Sudan.svg\|capital=Khartoum\|largest_city=capital\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Federal [[Bourgeois]] Provisional Government\|image_map=Sudan map.png\|map_width=310\|official_languages=Arabic<br>English\|area_km2=1,886,068\|population_estimate=45,709,353\|population_estimate_year=2022}}

	'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in Northern Africa. ~~It is currently under~~ a military dictatorship in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>		'''Sudan''', officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''', is a country in [[Northern Africa]] bordered by [[Arab Republic of Egypt\|Egypt]], [[State of Libya\|Libya]], [[Republic of Chad\|Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of South Sudan\|South Sudan]], [[Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia\|Ethiopia]] and [[State of Eritrea\|Eritrea]] with a coastline on the [[Red Sea]] to the east. In 2023 a civil war broke out against the military dictatorship which is currently in opposition to the [[Sudanese Communist Party]].<ref name=":0">{{Web citation\|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]\|title=PSL Statement — Sudan: In the face of civil war, the people demand the end of military rule\|date=2023-04-18\|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/sudan-in-the-face-of-civil-war-the-people-demand-the-end-of-military-rule/\|retrieved=2023-04-18}}</ref>

	== History ==		== History ==
	Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>		Sudan was under a military dictatorship from 1964 to 1969, when [[Jaafar Nimeiry]] overthrew the corrupt junta with support from the Sudanese Communist Party. Nimeiry banned all political parties except the SCP. In 1970, he began an attack on [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]]'s reactionary [[National Umma Party\|Umma Party]] before cracking down on the SCP.<ref name=":12222">{{Citation\|author=[[Vijay Prashad]]\|year=2008\|title=The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World\|chapter=Bali\|page=159–61\|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceascnzh26r5d6uitjjs2z7rflhaxlt7rboz5whzdf76qg6xxvecqq?filename=%28A%20New%20Press%20People%27s%20history%29%20Vijay%20Prashad%20-%20The%20darker%20nations_%20a%20people%27s%20history%20of%20the%20third%20world-The%20New%20Press%20%282008%29.pdf\|publisher=The New Press\|isbn=9781595583420\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=9B40B96E830128A7FE0E0E887C06829F}}</ref>

	In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> ~~[[Republic of~~ South Sudan~~\|South Sudan]]~~ broke away from Sudan in 2011.		In 1985, mass protests removed Nimeiry from power, but [[Omar Hassan al-Bashir]] established another dictatorship in 1989. [[United States of America\|U.S.]] president [[Bill Clinton]] ordered the destruction of Sudan's only pharmaceutical plant in 1988, removing 90% of Sudan's access to medicine.<ref name=":1" /> Sudan lost all access from anti-malaria drugs.<ref>{{Web citation\|date=2023-04-12\|title=Ramsey Clark, human rights fighter – 1927-2021\|url=https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|newspaper=[[Workers World]]\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173503/https://www.workers.org/2021/04/55760/\|archive-date=2023-01-31\|retrieved=2023-04-23\|author=Sara Flounders}}</ref> South Sudan broke away from Sudan in 2011.

	In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]].<ref name=":0" />		In 2019, the military overthrew Bashir, and [[Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf]] briefly took power before being replaced by [[Abdel Fattah Abdelrahman Burhan]], an ally of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\|Saudi]] and [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]] monarchies.<ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Luwezi Kinshasa\|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]\|title=The fall of Omar Hassan al-Bachir\|date=2019-06-10\|url=http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109003215/http://www.theburningspear.com/2019/06/The-fall-of-Omar-Hassan-al-Bachir\|archive-date=2020-11-09\|retrieved=2022-08-13}}</ref> In October 2021, the army staged a coup and took full control of the state. In 2023, fighting broke out between Abdel Fattah's government and the [[Rapid Support Forces]] led by General [[Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo]].<ref name=":0" />